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The Oceans Surrounding The Island Of Tutuila, American Samoa In today’s article we will discuss the oceans surrounding the pacific island of Tutuila. Tutuila is the largest & capital island in the archipelago known as American Samoa. This island is a territory of the United States Of America. It is in the middle of Oceania. It is incredibly far from the closest continent that is considered mainland. It stands at 17,439.11 nautical miles from the continent of Australia. It is 15,939.46 miles from the country of China. It is also 7,830.43 Nautical miles from Antarctica. This island sits in the central Pacific Ocean. It is incredibly biodiverse & is home to many unique & intelligent species. A great example of this is the Pantropical spotted dolphin. A reason as to why the island is so biodiverse marine wise, is due to the great environmental factors. These environmental factors (such as coral reefs) are often maintained by humans. The oceans are calm & clear as well, making sea life very visible. The oceans are also biodynamic & have many different environments that creatures may thrive in. The island also has many unique oceanic characteristics such as the many underwater caves around. The ocean also extends quite deep in this area of the pacific leaving room for many interesting & strange deep sea fish. These will be discussed in the article. Many recreational activities take place in the oceans as well, these have formed a sort of bond between the marine wildlife & the humans of Tutuila. The island is also well known for its beaches, which are a staple in both the culture of the island & a staple for the marine animals. A reason as to why the beaches are so important is because they have unique wildlife & due to the amazing oceanic climate of the island. The lagoons of the island are also lined with coral. This creates a strong ecological complex for both the fauna & the humans who often enjoy the lagoons. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the American Samoan island of Tutuila. The Salinity, Temperatures, Tides, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Oceans Surrounding Tutuila The Salinity of the water surrounding the island of Tutuila has not fully been measured or verified. However, it can be assumed that the salinity is approximately between 34 & 37 parts per thousand. Salt deposits are also not common & brine pools are also uncommon. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. Though the island has mangrove forests these do not affect the salinity in any way. There are no randomly forming currents & there are currently no extreme currents which would pose a threat to any person. There is also little to no riptide or very high surf. The water temperatures for this island can be found on a plethora of websites however the easiest to navigate are the following; https://www.surf-forecast.com , https://www.tideschart.com , & https://www.seatemperature.org . The tidal charts can also be found on these websites. The tide usually never gets over 3.7 feet (1.12776 meters) tall from the current algorithm of the waves. The majority of the oceanic floor around the island consists of coral, sand, & rock. There are very little to no seamounts nearby the island. The deepest point within 5 Nautical/Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) of the island is 5975.7 feet (1821.39336 meters) deep. Swimming is completely safe on the island due to the low amount of water pollution, the warm temperatures, & the lack of riptide or high surf. However it is still recommended that you listen to any warnings put out by the American Samoan government. Scuba diving & snorkelling are also a common recreational activities that take place here. A reason for this is the marine biodiversity of the region. The island is in an extremes odd shape, however this shape gives it over 20,000 feet of coastline. Tutuila has approximately 6 designated marine protected areas at the time of publication. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Tutuila Coral Reefed Areas The coral reefs of Tutuila are all fringing coral reefs as opposed to being barrier reefs. There are approximately 250 documented species of coral around the island. This includes 3 species of coral which may grow as large as 10 feet in diameter. However these reefs were almost taken into complete extinction. The reason for this is the crown of thorns starfish. This starfish eats live coral tissue & they can multiple very quickly. This devastated approximately 90% of all fringing coral reefs around American Samoa. Reef algae has also run rampant & sometimes will grow completely over coral & prevent it from sucking in nutrients. This will cause the coral to die. However, parrotfish have been released & have controlled this problem relative nicely. They consume most of the reef algae in order to make sure that it does not asphyxiate the coral reefs. Mangrove Forests These mangrove forests are usually in tidal areas. However they are somewhat different then mangrove lagoons as mangrove lagoons are along lagoons instead of being in tidal areas. They are currently labelled at low to moderate vulnerability. There only 3 species of mangrove that are found growing on the island & those species are; Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (oriental mangrove), Rhizophora mangle (Red mangrove), & finally Xylocarpus moluccensis (The puzzlenut tree) is the rarest of the trio. These ecosystems are however in danger due to the sea level quickly rising. This puts them in severe risk of flooding & going completely underwater. This ecosystem provides many services towards the marine wildlife of Tutuila such as coastal protection, fish nursery habitat, hunting grounds, & shelter. Mangrove Lagoons Mangrove lagoons are quite similar except instead of being around the coast, this ecosystem exists around the lagoons. It provides the same services to the creatures of the lagoons. The area were most of this eco-complex is found is in the Pala Lagoon. The Documented Marine Flora Of Tutuila There are hundreds of types of marine flora of Tutuila. Coral will not be counted for this category as it is technically considered an animal instead of a plant. Unfortunately however not many of them have been documented of identified. One of the ones that has been documented is red algae. Red algae is strictly classified under the division of Rhodophyta. Approximately 133 species of red algae are found in the oceanic regions of Tutuila. Other types of algae have been found such as blue-green algae, brown algae, & green algae. There are approximately 27 documented species of blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) found around Tutuila. There are also 60 species of green algae (Chlorophyta) & 29 species of brown algae (Phaeophyta). As far as we know there are no endemic seagrasses or algae species that live around Tutuila. There are also only 2 seagrass species around the island. As can be seen, red algae is in the most abundance around the island. There are also invasive algae species that are red algae. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Tutuila There are hundreds of types of marine fauna around the island. For the purpose of this article we will only be counting fully aquatic species. This means that water birds will not count. The majority of them are found off the coast or in the lagoons with only a small percentage of them being left in the mangroves. However the mangroves are especially unique as they provide a service that the rest of American Samoa can’t. They provide a special type of shelter & nursery area for fish & mammals to feel safe. The rest of the American Samoan islands do not have mangrove trees, so many animals flock to the island. This is a major reason as to why the island is so extremely biodiverse. Now majority of these creatures are bacteria sized or smaller, we will not be discussing them. With that being said, here is a list of the most prominent species that support the marine ecological complexes of Tutuila; Stenella attenuata (Pantropical spotted dolphin), Balaenoptera musculus (Blue whale), Balaenoptera physalus (Fin whale), Balaenoptera borealis (Sei whale), Physeter macrocephalus (Sperm whale), Eretmochelys imbricata (Hawksbill turtle), Caretta caretta (South Pacific Loggerhead turtle), Lepidochelys olivacea (Olive Ridley turtle), Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle), Isurus oxyrinchus (Short-fin Mako shark), Carcharhinus longimanus (Oceanic White-Tip shark), Manta birostris (Giant Manta-ray), & Sphyrna lewini (Indo-West Pacific Scalloped Hammerhead shark). How The Marine Resources Were Utilized & How It Overall Affected The Marine Environment The marine resources of Tutuila were often utilized for communication fishing. Commercial fishing is still a very large industry in Tutuila. This of course, does strange things to the ecosystem. A good example of this is when a creatures main natural predator gets killed so the creature reproduces very quickly, which in turn causes another animal to decrease in population because the other creature suddenly requires more food needs. The fish were also negatively impacted due to the Pago Pago harbour being built. They were specifically affected by the boat fuel. Eco-tourism is also an increasingly popular industry on Tutuila. Eco-tourism is tourism that is for the purpose of seeing the ecological structures of the island, or seeing the ecosystems of the island. Directories / Credits https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/coral-reef-project-tutuila https://americansamoa.noaa.gov/about/ http://ecoadapt.org/data/documents/AmericanSamoa_VASummary_Mangroves.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349619846_The_Vegetation_of_Eastern_Samo https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Art-Whistler/publication/349619846_The_Vegetation_of_Eastern_Samoa/links/603852354585158939cdb54b/The-Vegetation-of-Eastern-Samoa.pdf?origin=publication_detail https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/science/condition/fbnms/history.html https://www.sprep.org/attachments/VirLib/Regional/skelton-2003-seaweeds-as.pdf http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/basch/uhnpscesu/pdfs/sam/Coles2003AS.pdf https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacific-islands/endangered-species-conservation/marine-protected-species-american-samoa Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Map Of Cape Cod This article is the seventh installment in the Ode To Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map up for Analysis is an antique map of Cape Cod, & Provincetown. Cape Cod Bay is approximately 604 square miles, though the map does not cover the entire bay. All around, the map is in marvelous condition. There is no curling damage, or any damage at all really. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the Beautiful, Cape Cod Bay. The Map Itself Since the map is in English, there is no need to translate it. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in the year 1836, by the United States Topographical Engineers. This map was found by Maps Of Antiquity, & where they originally found it is unknown. This map does not have any marien creature zones outlined on it. Though it is not labelled, the map has Herring Cove Beach displayed on it near the curl of the cape. The map is not very accurate about the lakes near Provincetown, but the proportions of the ocean are very accurate. We suspect that this map was a part of a specific collection, though we cannot say for certain. This map does not have a specific name. It does not have any coves labelled on it, but the coves are there, just unlabelled. The map has many lakes outlined quite prominently, as Provincetown was built near at least 17 lakes. The map is uncoloured, most likely for simplicity of the map. It is unclear whether or not this map was used for militaristic purposes, but it was made for such purposes. The map is primarily centered on Provincetown, not any lighthouses along the coast. Since the map was made in 1836, it is almost guaranteed that it was made using lithography. Especially since it was made by the United States Topographical Engineering Corps, the chances of it being made with an advanced for the time technique were higher. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Of Tutuila, American Samoa (Stenella Attenuata) This months article series will discuss.. The Island of Tutuila! Tutuila is the largest & capital island in the archipelago known as American Samoa. This island is a territory of the United States Of America. It is in the middle of Oceania. It is incredibly far from the closest continent that is considered mainland. It stands at 17,439.11 nautical miles from the continent of Australia. It is 15,939.46 miles from the country of China. It is also 7,830.43 Nautical miles from Antarctica. It is extremely biodiverse due to its nutrients, good climate, & marine protected areas. It also is an attractive area for animals to mate or give birth. The isle is also a common place to find water birds, however for the purpose of this article we will not count them as fully marine animals. However, this article is not for the purpose of discussing the oceans that surround Tutuila. This article is for the purpose of discussing a common animal found in these oceans. That animal, is known as the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin. This animal is a species of dolphin that is found throughout many corners of the world. It however, is found in a higher density throughout Tutuila. These creatures are beautiful & incredibly intelligent creatures. They are capable of using certain oceanic creatures as tools. They often interact with humans in many different ways, they seem to be curious about the human race as they are friendly. However this does not mean that you should approach them as they are still wild creatures & are untamed. This dolphin species is especially friendly towards humans. In this article we will discuss the life of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin , the distribution of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin, & finally the scientific detailings of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin. With that being said, let us delve into this interesting, complex, important, & brilliant species. The Life Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin This species was first described in 1846, the very genetically close genus however was first described in 1829. The species was first described by french naturalist, Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Baron Cuvier. This is often just abbreviated as Cuvier. It is not mentioned exactly how this creature was discovered, but it can be assumed that it was on a voyage through oceania. Their size is approximately 8.2 feet (2.49936 meters) as a full grown adult, this size estimation is not taking into account gender. The approximate mass of this creature is 260 pounds (117.934 kilograms). Their average lifespan is 43 years. This is actually quite fair for a dolphin. Maturity usually occurs at around 11 years of age. It is a well known fact that dolphins are incredibly smart. They are able to communicate their needs with each other & humans. They are also capable of learning tricks or mirroring other dolphins behaviours. Some studies suggest that dolphins are some of the smartest animals, only second to humans. They are incredibly social animals & seem to have almost their own language. They will make clicking noises towards each other. Using brain size as a barometer, dolphins come in very close to humans in brain to body size ratio. They seem to be the second animals on this scale. However, the vast majority of the ocean is still undiscovered so this very well may change. They also, have developed a use for underwater echolocation. They use echolocation in order to hunt in particularly deep water or water with very low visibility. They also have excellent memories, they are able to remember the faces of their caretakers in certain areas like rehabilitation centers. They also will favour certain humans over others. They are able to crave or want attention from certain humans, this is most well documented in the Nasa-funded experiment known as “Dolphinarium”. In this experiment Margaret Howe Lovatt attempted to teach an adolescent dolphin “Peter” to speak English. This did not work as Peter would become sexually aroused. This experiment proved that dolphins can apparently, lust after humans. This says a lot about the neuroscience behind love in dolphins & how it is eerily similar to humans. Dolphins as a whole have existed for approximately 11 million years. The diet of this creature usually consists of cephalopods & fish. They are not cannibalistic in any form. They usually eat approximately between 16-27 pounds of food. Their metabolism is similar to that of most land mammals. Their most common natural predators are various larger species of sharks & Orcas. Dolphins effectively swim by arching their backs & moving their flukes vertically up & down at a vary fast pace in order to generate momentum in the water and propel themselves forward. At top speed this species of dolphin has been recorded as traveling as fast as 28 kilometers per hour (17.3984 miles per hour). They are not aggressive towards humans unless provoked. They are however, extremely aggressive to each other. Especially during breeding season. They are incredibly social creatures. They can be territorial & males will battle males over certain territories, with females this is not the same. This species is listed as least concern on the IUCN red list. This means that this species is not in need of any conservational assistance & is thriving on its own. There are an estimated 2.5 million of Pantropical spotted dolphins alive at this point. Pantopical spotted dolphins are long & slender creatures in their physical aspects. Pantropical spotted dolphins do not have spots at birth but accumulate them as they age until they are almost completely covered with overlapping patterns. They are also distinguished by a dark cape or coloration on their backs which stretches from their head to almost midway between the dorsal fin & to their tail flukes. Another prominent feature of their physique is a white-tipped beak. The Mating Tactics, Procedures, Cycles, & Practices Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Dolphins mate via sexual reproduction. They usually reach sexual maturity at around 11 years for both genders. Between the ages of 11 & 35 they tend to be most fertile & willing to mate. They do not have a specific breeding month as breeding is a year round activity. A reason for this maybe due to the climate that they choose to live in. The females will usually only give birth every 3-5 years of their lives. These creatures are also not hermaphroditic however occasionally a dolphin maybe born intersex. They mate via internal fertilization which involves the male hooking his penis onto the female in order to ensure reproductive success underwater. This often results in them mating while their stomachs are touching. Their penises are also quite thick & stiff. The penises will not extend as well. It is not known exactly the average of how long this species of dolphins penises are. These penises are also not straight at all, they are in fact quite oddly shaped. The gestation period is approximately 11 months however it may be as long as 1 year. They usually only have 1 child & twins are statistically possible however that it is incredibly unlikely that twins occur. The mother will breastfeed her young for 2-3 years. However they can consume fish in as little as 5 months. They are still dependent on their mothers milk by that point though. They will often take care of the baby up until they are 5-10 years old. At this point the baby may leave to mate or just leave because they are ready to do so. The Distribution Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Pantropical spotted dolphins are not limited to just the southern hemisphere. They are found throughout virtually all tropical & subtropical seas throughout the world. They prefer these areas due to climate & favourable food availability. They are most commonly found in open oceanic areas, they don’t often go extremely close towards the coast. They seem to prefer waters that are above 75° Fahrenheit (23.8889 Celsius). They prefer being in the upper 80 feet of water due to their enjoyment of sun. Their preferred habitat is an area with lots of coral or rocks because those often attract prey. They do not however limit themselves to just 1 area & will go wherever they like. They are found everywhere from east Africa to the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. This creature does not have any known subspecies as of the time of publishing. They also don’t often cross breed with other similar species so having a hybrid would not happen naturally. Even though they are capable of crossbreeding in the wild, they just don’t. The Scientific Detailings Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Dolphins are quite infamous for a few things, but the main thing is that they are able to blow water out of a hole in the top of their head. The reason that they do this is because they have to breathe through their nostrils. They cannot breathe underwater like many other marine animals. To be clear, the water that they blow out does not come from the dolphins lungs. It comes is just water that sits atop their head. They blow this water out to inhale, they are able to only inhale through their blowholes. Their skeletal system is rather similar to that of humans. They are vertebrates. They also have no dorsal fin bone. They have approximately 300 bones in their individual bodies. Their teeth are pyramid-eske & pointed. This makes them perfect for ripping off flesh from creatures bodies. They have approximately 240 teeth. They also do not seem to have multiple layers of teeth. We have already discussed the majority of dolphin neuroscience & the capability of their brains so there is no need to discuss it further. However, as a quick note they are also able to feel jealousy. Especially when fighting over the female dolphins. Their blood is red much like humans. It is believed that all dolphin species have evolved from the creature known as Pakicetus. This creature was a four-legged mammal that would walk on land. This creature lived approximately 50 million years ago. Obviously, many changes had to have been gone through in order for Pakicetus to become modern day dolphin species. The image above depicts the suspicted evolutionary chain of what led to the modern day dolphin. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity of fur or hair, & three middle ear bones. There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Artiodactyla. which are even toed ungulates. Species categorized under Artiodactyla are ungulates, hoofed animals which bear weight equally on two of their five toes, these toes are the third & fourth toes. The other three toes are either present, absent, vestigal, or pointing posteriorly. Their infraorder is that of Cetacea. Key characteristics of this infraorder are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size & exclusively carnivorous diet. Another characteristic is their incredible social intelligence. There are roughly 90 species categorized under Cetacea. Their family is Delphinidae. This family consists of most oceanic dolphins. This family does not include river dolphins. Two characteristics of this order is that they are purely carnivorous & they are all usually incredibly social creatures. Some great examples of this are the fact that majority of these species live in pods or large groups. Their genus is Stenella. This genus consists of 5 current species (however this number may change in the future). This genus is incredibly special & abnormal as it holds the only known confirmed case of a hybrid species in oceanic mammals. This dolphin is known as the Stenella Clymene. This genus is informally known as bridled or spotted dolphins. This species binomial name is known as Stenella Attenuata. Directories / Credits https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/pantropical-spotted-dolphin https://www.vallarta-adventures.com/en/blog/how-smart-are-dolphins https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/how-intelligent-are-whales-and-dolphins/ https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/06/how-a-science-experiment-led-to-sexual-encounters-for-a-woman-and-a-dolphin/372606/ https://allthatsinteresting.com/margaret-howe-Lovatt https://animalia.bio/pantropical-spotted-dolphin Hunting - Wild Dolphin Project http://www.kevkurtz.com/his-blog/2016/11/2/how-do-dolphins-sleep https://www.whalefacts.org/dolphins-move/ https://study.com/learn/lesson/dolphins-mating-reproduction.html#section---LessonSummary https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/the-mechanics-of-dolphin-sex-all-the-dirty-details-you-need-to-know https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/how-do-dolphins-give-birth/ https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/how-do-whales-and-dolphins-breathe/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa ReplyForward

The Documented History Of Malibu, California In todays article, we will discuss the documented history of Malibu, California. Malibu, California is a city located along the coast of Southern California. It is famed for its beautiful beaches & it’s wide array of celebrities. Malibu is located in Los Angeles county, approximately 32.60 miles from Downtown Los Angeles. What is not well known about Malibu, is the fact that Malibu’s beaches are flooded by many different species of marine life. It is not often seen that Malibu offers a unique marine environment compared to other California coastal areas. For example, in Malibu Lagoon State Beach, many wading birds will swim around the lagoon & watch swimmers alike. Not only that, but Malibu is a prime area for Mussel hunting. Malibu has an abundance of Mussels so you may take them & eat them, however there are certain months of the year in which they are poisonous, so make sure to do research as to if they are safe to eat. Malibu is also a prime area to fish off of a pier, as the Malibu Sport Fishing pier is always open & extremely busy. On this pier, a fishing license is not required to fish. The majority of Malibu does require a fishing permit, so make sure to check the areas in which you are fishing. Malibu has a unique, & interesting history spanning the course of 3,000 years. The Chumash were the first people to inhabit the Malibu Coastal Region, & they were the only Native American tribe to inhabit Malibu. In fact, the word “Malibu” is a Chumash word. The Chumash inhabited the area of Malibu to Paso Robles & Morro Bay. Malibu’s largest elevation is currently 105 feet (32.004 meters) in the air, as Malibu is located along the coast, making it rather low laying. The current population of Malibu is surprisingly low, being at the mere number of 10,564 residents. It is 19.90 square miles (51.54076 square kilometers), giving it a population density of 540 residents per square mile (210 residents per square kilometer. It is in the time zone of Pacific Standard Time which covers parts of Mexico, Canada, & the United States. Their current city website, is malibucity.org, & it most likely will not change. In this article we will discuss the documented history of Malibu, California, the aboriginals of Malibu, California, the most destructive natural & man-caused disasters, & finally the economic state of Malibu. With that being said, let us delve into the place where the surf sounds loudly. The Documented History Of Malibu, California Before Colonization History from 2,500 B.C Before Colonization by the Mexicans, the Chumash Native Americans inhabited the area, & owned the land. They have inhabited the land since at minimum 2,500 B.C, which is 4,523 years from this current date. However, some evidence suggests they could have been in Malibu since 7,000 B.C, though this is not confirmed. The Chumash built a village in the place that is now Malibu, & they called this village Humaliwo. Humaliwo is a Chumash word that translates to “where the surf sounds loudly”. The exact place where this village was is on a hill, just across from Malibu Lagoon State Beach. History From The 1500’s In the year 1542, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo led an expedition from Baja California to California. This was the first contact the Spanish had with California. During this time, Cabrillo ventured to Malibu Lagoon to obtain fresh water. Not much else happened in this century for Malibu, as it was not completely colonized by the Spanish yet. After Colonization By The Spanish History From The 1600’s Nothing major happened during this century for the History of Malibu. History From The 1700’s During this time, Malibu became extremely important to the development of the Spanish system of missions. This system, established in 1769, was a system of 21 Catholic outposts founded by the Catholic priests of the Franciscan Order made to evangelize the Native Americans. It was important because the majority of the missions were on the land that Malibu currently resides on. Spanish History From The 1800’s In the year 1804, José Bartholomé Tapia was given a land grant from the Spanish Governor Jose Joaquin de Arrillaga. Malibu was part of this land grant, which was called “Rancho Topanga Malibu Seguit”. The land was used for predominantly Spanish Missions. This makes José Bartholomé Tapia the first historical land owner in Malibu. The Rancho Topanga Malibu Seguit was a Spanish grant consisting of 13,316 acres of Land. This land was in the Santa Monica Mountains, & the coast alongside them. In April of 1822, the land in which California is was made a Mexican territory following Mexicos Independence. All history in the century from beyond this point will be included in the subsection “After Colonization By The Mexicans”. After Colonization By the Mexicans Mexican-Californian History From The 1800’s In the year 1848 after Tapia died, his wife now widow inherited the land. She then sold this home in the same year to grandson in law, Leon Victor Prudhome. Shortly after, on September 9th of 1850, California became the 31st state to be added to the United States of America. All history in the century from beyond this point will be included in the subsection “After Colonization By The United States”. to After Colonization By The United States American-Californian History From The 1800’s In 1857, Prudhome sold the land to an Irishman known as Matthew Keller, or Don Mateo. The United States Surveyor General surveyed the land in 1857 to approve the land grant to Matthew Keller. The Surveyor approved the land to be given to Keller in 1872. After 1871, all real estate deeds are traceable to “The land of Matthew Keller”. In the year 1881 Matthew Keller unfortunately passed away, & his son Henry Keller inherited the land. He held onto this land until 1892, when he sold it to Frederick Hastings Rindge. At this point Frederick Hastings Rindge & May Rindge Became the owners of the land. They were the last private owners of the land, they managed to expand the land grant from 13,330 acres to 17,000 acres. History From The 1900’s When Fredrick unfortunately passed away in 1905, May Rindge took over the preservation of the property & management of the property. This earned her the prestigious & honourable title of “Queen Of Malibu”. She also began the famed “Malibu Potteries” business which made the Malibu tile that is sought after for homes modernly. When May eventually unfortunately passed away, the property was passed through the family to Rhoda Agatha Rindge, who married Merrit Huntley Adamson. The Rindge Family attempted to keep Malibu private property, however their efforts were futile. It was the last piece of land along the coast without a public road running through it in the early 1900’s. In the year 1921 on November the 3rd, after much legal struggle, it was decided that a county road would be built through the property. The Rindge’s built a beach home along Malibu Lagoon in the year 1929, which is still preserved to date, & brings in lots of tourism. In the year 1929, when the Roosevelt Highway, which is modernly the pacific highway, was built, it ended the long period of Malibu’s isolation. With a new public highway through Malibu, it began developing a flourishing economy. This development mainly started when the La Costa area was sold for 6 Million U.S.D in 1928. Malibu Colony was then leased to various movie stars, & famous singers. It then became an exclusive beach, & soon after that it became a popular hideout for Hollywood actors, hosts, singers, & directors. Movie Colony has henceforth been the playground for the business elite, & the Hollywood stars. May Rindge, who was still alive, wanted to live a private life on this land still. She ended up selling all of her land to go lead a private life elsewhere. The area continued to grow, with Hollywood becoming more & more popular along with the Los Angeles Area. On March 28th of 1991, Malibu was officially incorporated into a city. Malibu Currently has 21 miles of coastline. The Aboriginals Of Malibu, California The Chumash Native American Aboriginals The Chumash were a group of Native Americans inhabiting the areas from Malibu all the way to Paso Robles & Morro Bay. They inhabited 3 of the channel islands, those being Santa Rosa Island, Santa Cruz Island, & Santa Miguel Island. They were most concentrated in the Santa Barbara Channel region. At its peak, their population was approximately 25,000. They spoke the Chumashan languages, of which there are 3 predominant ones. There are North Chumash, Central Chumash, & Island Chumash. The Island Chumash was primarily spoken by those on Santa Rosa Island, Santa Cruz Island, & Santa Miguel Island. These languages, are unfortunately classified as extinct & have been since the early 1960’s. They mainly consumed seafood, such as the black abalone, pacific littleneck clam, bent-nosed clam, Olympia oysters, angular unicorn snails, butternut clam & red abalone. They would get these by spear fishing, & by using nets to catch the fish. They also had a primitive kind of fishing rod. Acorns were also often found in their diets, in the form of being ground up & cooked in a soup. They would also feast on the fruits of the laurel sumac tree. They also would use the ocean for transport as they would make dug-out canoes, which no doubt helped them in their expansion to the various channel islands. This also helped them, make trade with other villages & populations of natives. At their peak, they had approximately 150 independent villages. The largest of these villages were located along the mainland coast in Santa Barbara. The smaller villages tended to be located in areas that did not have immediate access to a spring, lake, or ocean. Each village had access to the majority of the resources Southwest California has to offer, because they all traded with each other. In addition to being inventive, they were also extremely successful at basket weaving. They would weave baskets for various purposes such as holding food, or using them to catch animals. They would also make various beads, for jewelry, & to weave into the baskets. They are not on record to have attacked any other neighbouring natives. They all had individual houses in their respective villages, & each village would have a sweat-house. A sweat-house is a house is a place for cleansing. Each individual village would have something like a playground for the children. This playground would have a flat outdoor area used to play games such as Payas, Peon, & Shinny. There would also be other areas in the village used for dancing, because dance was important in the Chumash culture. This ceremonial dance ground would have a high fence of tule mats, as tule mats serve as a nice windbreak. Inside of the sacred dance ground, was a semi circular area in which shamans & preists would perform religious rituals. Little is known about their religion, however they were most certainly polytheistic. They were also extremely skilled at medicine, & using the local herbs & plants to produce medicines. The Most Destructive Natural & Man-Caused Disasters To Ever Affect Malibu Disaster No. 1: The 1996 Calabasas Fire On October 21st of 1996, a major fire broke out in the Calabasas-Malibu area. It raged for 5 days & burned approximately 13,010 acres of land in both Malibu & Calabasas. It damaged approximately 6 structures. The fire was not contained until October 26th of 1996. Thankfully, no fatalities were reported. Disaster No. 2: The 1993 Old Topanga Fire On November 3rd of 1993, a flame sparked in the Malibu area. This fire would go on to mercilessly burn for 10 days. It scorched 18,000 acres of land in the Malibu area. In its path, it left 359 houses in ruin & 3 fatalities. It also burnt Mulholland Highway & the Pacific Coastal Highway. Unfortunately, some parents could not make it back to Malibu in time to get their children, so they were sheltered at the Point Dume Malibu Community Center. The Red Cross sheltered approximately 80 people at the center, 30 of which were school aged children. The flames raged on for 10 more days, until it was contained on November 11th of 1993. The Economic State Of Malibu The economic state of Malibu is stable, however it largely depends on Tourism. The job market in Malibu has increased by 0.7% in the year 2022, & it is predicted to increase by 33.7% over the next decade. The average salary for a person living in Malibu is 95,212$ a year. The Median Household income is 130,432$ a year. Currently, Malibu has an unemployment rate of 10.9%. The average home in Malibu, currently costs $3,326,388. The average rent for a studio apartment in Malibu is 2,295 U.S.D per month, & the average rent for a 2 bedroom apartment is 6,948 U.S.D per month. Directories / Credits “History Of Malibu” Written By Unknown. Published by the Malibu • Pacific Palisades Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.malibu.org/history-of-malibu “Welcome to Malibu” Written By Unknown. Published by All Things Malibu. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.allthingsmalibu.com/city-of-malibu/ “The Story Of Malibu” Written By Thomas W. Doyle, Toni Doyle, Charlotte H. Laubach, Frederick C. May, Judge John J. Merrick, Luanne Pfeifer, Ronald L. Rindge, & Juanita B. Ringer, then edited by Luanne Pfeifer. Published by the Malibu Lagoon Museum. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.malibucity.org/106/History-of-Malibu “Chumash Life” Written By Unknown. Published By The Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.sbnature.org/collections-research/anthropology/chumash-life/ “Calabasas-Malibu Fire Declared Contained” Written By Hugo Martin Published, October 28th 1996 12:00 AM PST. Published by the Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-10-28-me-58721-story.html “Fire burns behind the Rockwell Towers Residence Hall” Taken By Unknown, October 21st-26th 1996. Published by Pepperdine University, Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://pepperdine.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p15730coll27/id/1145/ “20 Years Later: The Old Topanga Fire” Written by 13StarsManager, Published November 6th 2023. Published by the Malibu Times, Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://malibutimes.com/article_bff8ba0a-46b1-11e3-b60c-001a4bcf887a “Economy in Malibu, California” Written by Unknown. Published by Bestplaces.net, & retrieved on May 11th 2023. https://www.bestplaces.net/economy/city/california/malibu “Malibu, CA Rent Prices” Written By Unknown. Published by zumper.com, retrieved on May 11th 2023. https://www.zumper.com/rent-research/malibu-ca Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California Today’s article will be discussing the oceans surrounding Malibu, California. Malibu, California is a city located along the coast of Southern California. It is famed for its beautiful beaches & it’s wide array of celebrities. Malibu is located in Los Angeles county, approximately 32.60 miles from Downtown Los Angeles. What is not well known about Malibu, is the fact that Malibu’s beaches are flooded by many different species of marine life. It is not often seen that Malibu offers a unique marine environment compared to other California coastal areas. For example, in Malibu Lagoon State Beach, many wading birds will swim around the lagoon & watch swimmers alike. Not only that, but Malibu is a prime area for Mussel hunting. Malibu has an abundance of Mussels so you may take them & eat them, however there are certain months of the year in which they are poisonous, so make sure to do research as to if they are safe to eat. Malibu is also a prime area to fish off of a pier, as the Malibu Sport Fishing pier is always open & extremely busy. On this pier, a fishing license is not required to fish. The majority of Malibu does require a fishing permit, so make sure to check the areas in which you are fishing. Additionally, they have a wide array of different marine ecosystems & landscapes. One of the main ones, is the rocky tidal pools & the various oceanic rock formations found along the beaches. These hold various crustaceans & many other species. This will be discussed in further detail in the section titled “The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California”. There are also many salt water marshes with beautiful wading birds that live in the marsh. These are found extremely prominently in Malibu Lagoon. For this reason, among wading bird watchers, makes Malibu extremely popular. Aside from that, Malibu is extremely beautiful for tourists in Los Angeles as it has some of the highest ratings for beaches in Southern California. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, tides, temperatures, marine geography, basic Information of the oceans surrounding Malibu, California, The most prominent ecosystems of the oceans surrounding Malibu, California, the Documented marine flora of Malibu, California, the documented Marine Fauna of Malibu, California, & finally How the oceanic resources of Malibu have been utilized & how it has affected the environment. The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California Unfortunately, the exact salinity of Malibu has never been measured. Since Malibu rests in the Pacific ocean, it has a lesser salinity then the Atlantic. Salt deposits or brine pools have not been proven to be found around the island in higher concentrations then other areas. However, this could change. Since the average salinity of the water in the southwestern Pacific is 35 parts per thousand at any given time, it can be assumed that the salinity level is somewhere around that. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is the way that salinity is currently measured. There is something that could result in a change in the salinity of the coastal waters located along Malibu. This would be the trapping of brackish water in the marshes, which could result in an extremely salty coastline. If brackish water gets stuck in marshes, then it will disrupt the input & output of salt. This could cause a coastline with a high salinity, which will in turn result in the death of certain species. The oceanic temperatures of Malibu can be found on a plethora of websites, however the most user friendly ones are as follows; https://seatemperature.net , https://www.surf-forecast.com , https://seatemperature.info , https://www.seatemperatu.re , & finally, seatemperatures.nethttps://seatemperatures.net . The annual average oceanic temperature in Malibu currently rests at 62° Fahrenheit (16.6667° Celsius). This requires a wetsuit thickness of 2 to 3 & a half millimeters. The tidal charts for Malibu can also be found on a few of those websites. Occasionally, Malibu may receive waves as high as 20.56 feet high. This usually only happens at Malibu Surfrider beach & Zuma Beach though. The waves are often much tamer then that, & reach a length of 5-6 feet on an average day. Oftentimes the oceanic floor along Malibu’s coastline will consist of sand & rock, instead of coral or any other substance. Also there are little to no oceanic mounds around Malibu. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine Miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) around Malibu is currently 2,457.7 feet deep. There are certainly randomly forming currents around Malibu which can be dangerous for swimmers & surfers alike. These currents are called rip currents or riptides, which can be extremely dangerous as they will pull a swimmer out to sea. They can be easily spotted because they are usually full of foamy brownish coloured water. This is due to a lot of sand becoming mixed into the rip current. If you see this in Malibu, do not swim near it or enter the water as you may be pulled under water. This can make is occasionally unsafe for swimmers, however they can be somewhat easy to spot, so just do your research to make sure that there is not a rip current out at sea. Aside from this, Malibu has some extremely beautiful beaches, & experiences a fair amount of tourism. Currently, the best beaches to visit along Malibu are Point Dume, Zuma Beach, Carbon Beach, Malibu Surfrider’s Beach, Malibu Lagoon State Beach, & finally Paradise Cove Beach. Pollution isn’t that large of an issue along Malibu, at least not to the point where it can injure a swimmers health. You are go scuba diving & snorkelling in Malibu, however the visibility may not be very good in certain areas. There unfortunately, are not coral reefs in Malibu at this time, the nearest coral reefs would be farther south. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California Coastal Rock Pools / Tide Pools Coastal Rock pools are extremely common along the Malibu Coastline. They are commonly found along beaches, & are not often nearby marshland. These ecosystems are not always habitable as during low tide periods. These ecosystems often contain crustaceans & various shellfish. Mussels are found extremely commonly in these ecosystems, specifically in Malibu. These ecosystems line the coastline & are only found along the coastline. These often are the most disturbed ecosystems as humans, because they are the closest to areas active with humans. When going near tide pools it is important to avoid damaging any structures as this could severely affect all of the creatures in said ecosystem. Also, sea urchins are frequently found nestled in this ecosystem so when you if you have to walk through this ecosystem, be careful. Salt Water Marshland This type of ecosystem is extremely common throughout Malibu & its various beaches. One of the main places were this ecosystem is found on Malibu Lagoon State Beach. These ecosystem often has 2-3 feet of seawater & tall seagrass growing out of the water. This ecosystem is often where most wading birds are found as wading birds enjoy shallow areas that their body is able to stick up out of. They will often go into this ecosystem & hunt fish & various crustaceans. Crabs, Mussels, & small fish can be found in this ecosystem along with wading birds. The species of seagrass most prominent in this ecosystem is Zostera Marina. This ecosystem does fluctuate depth depending on the tide, however it can be from 5 to 12 feet (1.524 to 3.6576 meters) deep. The Documented Marine Flora Of Malibu, California There are approximately 2 prominent species of seagrass found along Malibu, these species are known as Zostera Marina (Common eelgrass), & Phyllospadix Scouleri (Scouler’s seagrass). Zostera Marina however, holds a special & significant role compared to Phyllospadix scouleri. One thing that Eelgrass does that surfgrass can’t do as well. is prevent water erosion. Surfgrass can prevent water erosion however eelgrass is better at it, as it can slow water currents. This makes eelgrass extremely important as it prevents new waterways from being created underground. These seagrasses are often found in large patches, & when they die they will wash on shore &, line the beaches. Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass) Zostera Marina is the first species of seagrass found along Malibu’s coast. It is recognizable because it has 1 long stem that is often 1 meter (3.28084 feet) long. The stem is often between 0.5 (0.19685 inches) & 1 centimeter (0.393701 inches) thick. This one is the one most often found on the coast as it grows along muddy & sandy shorelines. This seagrass is also most commonly found in marshes, which is most likely why it is such a popular food among wading birds. It is found from the Alaskan Panhandle to Baja California Sur. Phyllospadix Scouleri (Scoulers Surfgrass) The second species of seagrass is Phyllospadix Scouleri. This species is extremely recognizable because it is vividly green, very flat, & very long. It looks very silky & it grows in large clumps, these clumps are often exposed during low tide & submerged during high tide. These clumps can be approximately 0.5 feet (0.1524 meters) in diameter & as long as 2 feet (0.6096 meters). This species of seagrass is found from the Alaskan Panhandle to Baja California Sur. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Malibu, California Malibu attracts a wide array of different marine creatures due to its strange array ecosystems. It is semi-hard to keep a straight log of all species that live throughout Malibu because the majority of them are highly migratory. Malibu is often attractive for species because it has many different types of mollusks, which helps the food chain survive well. Additionally, Malibu is often used for surfing instead of other swimming recreations like Santa Monica or Avalon beach. This prevents it from becoming very polluted, so more species are able to thrive & more ecosystems are able to be built. Also, Malibu has a lot of seagrass which helps various species of marine reptiles thrive. As far as we know, the salinity of Malibu is not an attractive feature for animals. For the sake of this article, we will not be stating any animals that have not been spotted around Malibu in the least year. There are currently no known endemic species to Malibu. With that being said, the list of all the most prominent species currently found around Malibu is as follows: Phoca Vitulina (Harbour Seal), Mytilus Californianus (California Mussel), Thylacodes Squamigerus (Scaled Worm Snail), Fissurella Volcano (Volcano Keyhole Limpet), Nanavax Inermis (California Aglaja), Leukoma Staminea (Pacific Littleneck Clam), Flabellinopsis Iodenia (Spanish Shawl), Octopus Bimaculoides (Lesser Two Spot Octopus), Lottia Scabea (Rough Limpet), Donax Gouldii (Gould Beanclam), & finally the Bulla Gouldiana (Cloudy Bubble Snail). How The Oceanic Resources Of Malibu Have been Utilized & How It Has Affected The Environment Most oftentimes, The Oceanic resources of Malibu have been utilized for fishing, & tourism. Not much commerical fishing takes place off the coast of Malibu, however plenty of non-commercial fishing does. The most common place to fish that is on the Malibu Coastline is the Malibu Sport Fishing Pier. This pier does not require a license to fish on as of 2023. These sport anglers will often affect the population of California corbina, & Halibut in the region as these are the most common fish to catch year round. The tourism as not affected the marine life in Malibu very badly because the surfers of Malibu are considerate of the ocean creatures. Directories / Credits Bardach, J. E. , Morgan, . Joseph R. and Cotter, . Charles Henry (2023, March 31). Pacific Ocean. Encyclopedia Britannica. https:// www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean “Water Temperature In Malibu by Month”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by SeaTemperature.net. Retrieval Date: June 19th 2023. https://seatemperature.net/current/united-states/malibu-california-united-states-sea-temperature “Rip Currents” Written by Author Eclectice, June 22nd 2018. Published by the Malibu Mako Club. Retrieved April 27th 2023. https://www.malibumakos.com/rip-currents/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of The Gulf Of Venice, Italy This article is the sixth instalment in the Ode To Oceanography Series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map up for analysis, is an antique nautical chart of the Gulf of Venice. The gulf of Venice is approximately 75 miles wide, & is approximately 125 feet deep on average. The map is in wonderful condition, apart from some curling in the upper side of the map. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the Venetian Gulf. The Map Itself This map is in french. The front emblem says “Carte Reduite De Golfe de Venise”, which translates to “Reduced Map Of The Gulf Of Venice”. This map is specifically off the gulf, & all islands or other land areas are left off the map. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in the year 1820, by Captain Gauttier. The map was found by Maps Of Antiquity, & the original owner of the map is unknown. This map was most likely made in france, due to the map being in french. This map has no rapids, or topographical features outlined on the map. Additionally, there are no marine creature areas outlined on the map. The map is extremely proportionally accurate. As far as we are aware the map is not a part of a specific collection, nor does it have a particular name. This map remains uncoloured, most likely for simplicity the map is not centered on any country, island, or light house. It was also not made or used for any militaristic purposes. Due to the time that the map was made, it is hard to say exactly how it was made. In the year 1820, lithography began becoming commercially popular, which makes the chances of it being made by they method more likely. Since we do not know what country this map was made in, we do not know if lithography had become commercially popular in that area yet. Lithography is still the most likely option, but by a slimmer margin. The first technique that will be discussed is the bronze slab technique. In this technique, there are 5 jobs, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, the papermaker, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually there would only be 1-2 plates used, however it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Then after this, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. In the second method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu This months article will be about.. The western pacific island of Espiritu Santo! Espiritu Santo is an island that makes up the country of Vanuatu. It exists in the southwestern pacific ocean. It is incredibly far from land. Many marine animals from this isle migrated from Australia or other surrounding areas. The isle is approximately 3689.68 nautical/marine miles from mainland Vietnam. That is the closest to a continent that is considered “mainland”. It is a mere 998.36 nautical miles from the Australian province of Queensland. It is also approximately 3343.68 nautical miles from the Antarctica. This island is not to be confused with Isla del Espiritu santo which is off the coast of Baja California Sur. It is the largest island that belongs to Vanuatu. It is incredibly biodiverse & has a rich history due to its placement in Polynesia. It’s history spans over 3,500 years. Espiritu Santo is a part of the Sanma province of Vanuatu. It is also apart of the New Hebrides archipelago. It has many islets that jut out of the water around it, a few of which may have broken off from the main isle in the past. Its current largest settlement is known as Luganville. The isle has a current population of 40,000, 10,738 or 26.84500% of which are located in Luganville. Its later history was widely dictated by the British empire due to it being colonized by Britain for over 8 decades. It has had many tribes occupy its lands, a few of which have unfortunately been lost to time. The most namely of these being the Ni-Vanuatu people who still occupy the island. Thankfully, parts of the culture of many of these tribes can be found in the island’s culture in modern times. The isle has served many purposes for many different countries & cultures. The highest elevation on the island is Mount Tabwemasana standing at 6,165 feet in height. The island is best known for its many shipwrecks & plane wrecks off the coast, these areas are common places for snorkelling. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Espiritu Santo as a whole, The known aboriginals of Espiritu santo, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Espiritu Santo, & finally a segment on the Vanuatuan economy. With that being said, let us delve into the historical part of Santo. The Documented History Of Espiritu Santo Before Colonization It is believed that people came over from the Solomon Islands or Papua New Guinea using canoes approximately 3,500-3,000 years ago. They most likely went to the island of Malakula first then arrived on Espiritu Santo. These people were most likely of the Lapita indigenous tribe. This culture were made up of austronesian people. Unfortunately we do not have exact records as to when exactly this was. These people will go on to make up majority of the indigenous tribes on the island. These tribes would make pottery & ceramics. There is also no clear evidence that suggests that there were multiple tribes. The Lapita have a clear ceramic style which if they were there would have been on these fragments. However we cannot confirm whether it was found on the ceramic or not. These ceramic fragments have been found throughout the hilly areas of the island. However majority of these pieces have been destroyed due to the climate of the island. These pieces date back to 1300 B.C. However at first the Lapita were not united. Roymata united them & became their chief. He instituted a peaceful culture & in the following years there were no conflicts or major battles on the isle. Roymata would have lived at the beginning of the 16th or 17th century. The stories of him have been passed down via Oral tradition. These stories have been corroborated by centuries old archeological sites. On these archeological sites paintings of these stories can be found. The majority of the Lapita came from the Solomon islands or Papua New Guinea however some of them may have came from the Philippines or Taiwan. Also, Geological records show a volcanic eruption on the nearby island of Ambrym in approximately 200 A.D. This would have caused the absolute devastation of villages as well as major famine. After Colonization 17th Century In the year of 1606 A.D the Portuguese explorer Pedro Fernández De Quirós discovered the island. He thought that this isle was a great southern continent. This is all that would go on for this century as Europeans would not be returning until 1768. The exact reason for this is unknown however other explorations may be the reason for this. 18th Century In 1768, the Spanish arrived back on the island. This was during the Spanish conquest. Louis Antonie de Bougainville was the leader of the group that rediscovered the archipelago. Bougainville would name these Les Grandes Cyclades. His reasoning for this is somewhat unknown. In 1774, Captain Cook renamed the archipelago of modern Vanuatu “New Hebrides”. This name would last throughout its rule by the United Kingdom & up until it declared independence. 19th Century During the year 1800 a mass exodus of slaves from Oceania to Europe happened. These people were mainly from Australia, Fiji, & New Spain. However a few were from Vanuatu. This labor trade caused a new form of debt bondage to be made. This form was a type of indentured labor known as blackbirding. This practice consisted of laborers being coerced to do usually backbreaking plantation work in extremely inhumane & violating conditions. During this labor trade more than half of Vanuatu’s population were kidnapped off of the island. This severely reduced the indigenous population to the point where modernly there are very few remaining Ni-Vanuatu peoples. After this the majority of the population were Christian European Immigrants. These missionaries would often attempt to convert the locals form their folk religions. Also In this century the Caledonian Company of New Hebrides was founded & incorporated. This influenced many french folk to move to the island. 20th Century In 1906, France & the United Kingdom agreed to govern the islands together in a form of government called the British-French Condominium. This dual governance would be continued until the 1940s when WWII was brought to the islands by the Americans. It was this time when a sense of nationalism among locals grew large enough to challenge this joint form of government. They decided to band together & essentially petition to become independent. This nationalism campaign hit its peak on the 17th of august 1971. This was due to Father Walter Lini & co to found the New Hebrides National Party or the My Land Party. This party still exists at the time of publishing. The Uprising was known as the coconut war or the bow & arrow war. This war was extremely brief & only officially lasted from June 8th of 1980 This war only had a few casualties & was unconventional. This ended with the Declaration of Independence from Vanuatu. The Aboriginals Of Espiritu Santo The Ni-Vanuatu Indigenous Peoples The Ni-Vanuatuan Indigenous Peoples are a restricted group of indigenous people only found throughout Vanuatu. There are approximately 300,000 of them remaining. They originate as some of the first inhabitants on Vanuatu. They are carriers of the long dead Lapita Culture. They have unique clothings, traditions, & music. One of their unique types of clothing is the penis sleeve. These sleeves are called yelau & they will hang down at various lengths depending on the man's status. In some particular cases, the chiefs would have penis sleeves that hung down to their ankles. They also have specialized musical instruments. One of those is a bamboo pipe that is akin to a modern day flute. The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters That Have Affected Espiritu Santo No. 1 Tropical Cyclone Pam Cyclone pam is regarded as the worst natural disaster to ever effect Vanuatu. It was a category 5 tropical cyclone that swept the southern pacific from march 6th to march 20th 2015. It is currently regarded as the 2nd most destructive & intense tropical storm to ever occur in the southern Pacific Ocean. As a result approximately 3,300 were left without homes. There were a total of 16 fatalities as a indirect & direct result of the hurricane. It cost a total of 692 Million dollars from all countries involved. Adjusted for inflation that would be approximately 870,082,331.65 USD, or 870 million USD. The highest wind speed was 175 miles per hour & it was 1 minute sustained. No.2 Tropical Cyclone Harold Cyclone Harold lasted from April 1st through April 11th of 2020. This was a category 5 hurricane that also swept Oceania. It caused 31 confirmed casualties & 22 missing reports. 2 of these casualties were on Vanuatu. The 22 have yet to be confirmed dead. It was a part of the 2019 hurricane season. At its peak the highest winds it produced was 175 miles per hour. In total it caused 123.5 million USD in 2020. Adjusted for inflation that is approximately 142,206,019.06 USD or 142 million USD. No.3 Plane Crash Van Air YJ-RV4 On the 25th of July 1991, a plane crashed carrying 8 passengers & 1 crew member. This plane was run by VanAir. The type of aircraft was a Britten-Normand Islander. It was taking off from Olpoi, Vanuatu & it was headed towards Luganville, Vanuatu. While it was climbing into the air it crashed near the mountains. 7 minutes after takeoff from Olpoi the twin engine aircraft hit tree tops & crashed in a wooded & hilly terrain located few kilometers from the airstrip. The aircraft was utterly destroyed beyond recognition. All occupants were killed immediately upon impact. The reason for this crash was most likely the pilots inexperience flying this low over this type of terrain. The pilot type was a scheduled revenue flight. The Economic State Of Espiritu Santo The economy of Espiritu santo is relatively stable. However due to semi-frequent tropical cyclones, the economy will occasionally be disrupted. These disruptions are mostly temporary. Villages on espiritu santo are mostly self sufficient. As in they grow most of their own foods & raise most of their own animals. Their GDP for 2021 was 0.928 Billion USD. Their GDP per capita is 3,255 USD. Their inflation rate is not very much & is quite tame, staying at 2.863%. Their GDP by sector is 20.7% agriculture, 11.7% manufacturing, & 67.6% services. Their main industries are meat canning, meat & fish freezing, & wood processing. Commercial fishing is also common but it is not often done by the Vanuatuan government. Their property rates for Luganville are 2.644.29 USD for a 1 bedroom apartment in city center & 3,702.00 USD for a 3 bedroom apartment in city Center. As you can see, tourism has caused the housing prices to go up majorly. There was a large disruption in the economy during 2020 as with most other countries. Their current currency is the Vatu. The Vatu is a unique currency that is only accepted in Vanuatu. It is abbreviated as VUV. The exchange rate between VUV & USD is that 1 USD is the equivalent of 117.651 VUV. 1 VUV is equivalent of 0.0084996974 USD. Vanuatu does not have a public stock market at the time of publishing. Their main import partners are China, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, & Japan. Directories / Credits https://www.seal-superyachts.com/vanuatu-tribes-preserved-by-geography/ https://thehavannah.com/history-of-vanuatu https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16426561.amp https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/australia-and-south-pacific/vanuatu/history-and-culture https://www.jstor.org/stable/25168391 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10357717908444661?journalCode=caji19 https://www.royalmarineshistory.com/post/independence-of-the-new-hebrides-coconut-war-with-france https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/vanuatu.htm https://www.baaa-acro.com/crash/crash-britten-norman-bn-2a-6-islander-olpoi-9-killed https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-relief-news-stories/2015-vanuatu-cyclone-pam-facts https://reliefweb.int/attachments/fbe66a56-8cce-3f72-add7-5dd20dc96c05/OCHA_VUT_TCPam_Sitrep1_20150310.pdf https://www.traveltill.com/destination/Vanuatu/Espiritu-Santo/economy.php https://www.numbeo.com/property-investment/in/Luganville-Vanuatu?displayCurrency=USD Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu This months article will be about.. The western pacific island of Espiritu Santo! Espiritu Santo is an island that makes up the country of Vanuatu. It exists in the southwestern pacific ocean. It is incredibly far from land. Many marine animals from this isle migrated from Australia or other surrounding areas. The isle is approximately 3689.68 from mainland Vietnam. That is the closest to a continent that is considered “mainland”. It is a mere 998.36 miles from the Australian province of Queensland. It is also approximately 3343.68 nautical miles from the Antarctica. Vanuatu is extremely biodiverse due to it being in the Indo-western region. The island exists in the Pacific Ocean. One of the most infamous of these flashy creatures is the Greater Blue-ringed octopus. This is a species of venomous octopus which lives off the island. It is incredibly well known for its beautiful beaches. It is a popular destination for snorkelling & scuba diving enthusiasts. A factor as to why this is, is that they have beautiful shallow coral reefs that line most of the island. It has a diverse set of marine flora as well. This sets up a beautiful ecological complex for many species. This is why many species migrate to Espiritu Santo. The result of all of this is a beautiful, vibrant, biodynamic ecosystem. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the island of Santo. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Espiritu Santo Since Espiritu santo is in the Pacific ocean it has a lesser salinity level then say the Atlantic Ocean. Salt deposits are not common around the island. The exact salinity level of the water surrounding the island has not officially been released. However, since the average salinity of the water in the southwestern Pacific is 35 parts per thousand at any given time, it can be assumed that the salinity level is somewhere around that. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. There are also No current on going factors that would affect the salinity levels in such a harsh way that the salinity would change. It is also unknown the deepest oceanic point around the island. The water temperature for the oceans around the island can be found on a variety of websites. The most trustworthy are https://www.watertemperature.org , https://www.weather-atlas.com , & https://weather-and-climate.com . The tidal charts can be found on these following websites; https://www.tide-forecast , http://www.tidetablechart.com , & https://tidesnear.me . The tides as far as can be seen are not usually over 5.4 feet (1.64592 meters) high. There are not many currents around the island & they are not in danger of forming without warning. The riptide is not dangerous & there is often not high surf. However just because the seas are usually calm does not mean it is not heavily advised to listen to the coastal guard of Vanuatu. Pollution is not bad enough to cause any danger to humans. Many recreational activities such as swimming, surfing, scuba diving, & snorkelling take place here. There are a total of 7 marine protected areas of Vanuatu. These marine protected zones collectively make up 0.008% of Vanuatu’s national waters. As for marine geography the island usually does not have very many sea mounts due to how shallow the water is. The bottom of the oceanic floor in these areas are very often sand, coral, rock, or hardened mud. The island also has approximately 200.53 Nautical/Marine miles (230.811834 miles or 371.45564 kilometers) of coastline. The Main Marine Ecosystems Of Espiritu Santo Coral Reefed Areas Coral reefs are the most infamous of the ecosystems of Vanuatu. The coral reefs nearby are usually within 30 feet of surface level & are fringing rather then barrier. They are absolutely beautiful & attract millions of dollars in tourism each year. These areas serve as a home, a habitat, & a hunting ground for many creatures. Not to mention that the coral itself is alive. There are currently 296 coral species that have been identified. 24 of these species have not been recorded as being found in the great barrier reef. This means that these species have migrated from elsewhere or are completely unique to the region. These coral reefs however, are often damaged or in poor condition. This is mainly due to human activity & invasive species being introduced. Seagrass Beds There is no specific place that these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. However they are usually found along the coast or in tidal areas. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually smaller animals are found here, this makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses & most tropical & subtropical fish species give birth. It consists mostly of seagrass, clumps of mud, & the occasional rock formation. This is also can area where most animals can hide. So it is extremely important when venturing through areas like this to watch out for Blue-Ringed Octopi. The Documented Marine Flora Of The Espiritu Santo The Marine Flora of Espiritu santo is increasingly becoming more diverse & more threatened. Many species are being threatened due to not enough protection & ocean acidification. They have approximately 2 species of seagrass however the exact species have not been released to the public domain at the time of publication. Coral will not be counted in this section due to it technically classifying as an animal. Micro-algae & species of the like will also not be discussed. During an expedition in 2006 around the island, many species of green algae were discovered to be in the water. Approximately 276 species of green algae were described to be in the area. The basic reason for this is due to great climate & proteins existing the water in a higher density then elsewhere. This goes for most of Oceania. There are no known endemic marine flora species however that does not mean that they do not exist. There are no kelp species that are found around the island, the closest species is around Southern Australia. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Espiritu Santo Marine fauna around this isle is absolutely stunning & biodiverse. Many species migrate to this area due to the great climate, nutrients, abundance of food, & the environmental stability. These species may migrate to Australia & back for mating cycles or to built colonies outwards. Unfortunately, many of these species happen to be endangered. The most notable example of this is the Dugong Dugon (Dugong) & the Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle). However there are many government & private conservation efforts & projects that are currently taking place. The most prominent marine fauna species that live around Espiritu santo are as follows: Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle), Dungong Dugon (Dugong), various species of whales, 35 coral mushroom species, Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Mangrove red snapper), Caranax Ignobilis (Giant Trevally), Coryphaena Hippurus (Common Dolphinfish), & Gymnosarda Unicolor (dogtooth tuna). There are thousands of small tropical fish species that can be seen in the shallow coral reefs. However since there are so very many of these species we will not be discussing them. How The Marine Resources Of Espiritu Santo Were Utilized The Marine Resources of this island were most often utilized for commercial fishing. This of course, harmed the wildlife severely. This proves once again that most often humans will negatively influence the wildlife. However, this is not always purposeful. Another way that the marine resources are currently used is for ecological tourism purposes. They are very beautiful & are surreal to look at. This makes eco-tourism a large part of the tourism sector. Directories / Credits https://www.aims.gov.au/docs/projectnet/blue-ringed-octopus.html https://www.wabe.org/tv-episodes/coral-reefs-of-vanuatu-zojpje/ https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f4e97a57-e8b9-4426-a32c-a8edf2fbba45/content https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239594830_LIST_OF_ALGAE_FROM_THE_SANTO_2006_EXPEDITION_VANUATU https://www.researchgate.net/figure/2-Global-distribution-of-forest-forming-kelps-Steneck-et-al-2002-open-ocean-low_fig1_338680185 https://www.animalinfo.org/country/vanuatu.htm https://www.grida.no/resources/3555 http://www.resort-vanuatu.com/fish_species_in_vanuatu.htm Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

An Interview With Emily Johns  A writer of ours recently conducted an online interview with an aquaculture foreman, Emily. Emily Johns is the foreman for an aquaculture farm in Tomales Bay, which is the Hog Island Oyster Company. Hog Island Oyster Company is an oyster company that is located in Northern California. Beginning in 1983, the farm has been bringing oysters to Californians for generations. They currently grow 4 species of oysters, along with Manila Clams. These species of oysters are the Atlantic oyster, Pacific oyster, Olympia oyster, & Kumamoto oyster. Their main location is in Tomales Bay, but their hatchery location is in Humboldt County. This hatchery location breeds the oysters & raises them from an egg. After the egg is made, it is raised in Humboldt County until it is an acceptable size for shipment. Once they are large enough, they are shipped to the main farm in Tomales Bay. These oysters will stay in the bay for between 6 months & 2 years, depending on the species. She began working with the Hog Island Oyster Company in late August & attended an aquaculture conference along with other members of the company. This is where our writer met her. In this interview, our writer asked her a total of 25 questions. In this article, we will discuss the contents of our interview with her. Our questions can be broken down into three sections: questions about her career path, questions about the Hog Island Oyster Company farm, & questions related to the biological process of raising an oyster. With that being said, let us delve into an interview with Emily Johns. The Contents Of The Interview  Ms. Johns always had a passion for aquaculture, kelp, & oceanic life in general. Ms. Johns began her career in aquaculture in Maine, with Mook Sea Farm, farming oysters. She came to Maine with hopes of going into seaweed farming, but this was unattainable at the time. She continued at this farm for a few years, until she decided she wanted a change of pace. Johns began emailing aquaculture farms up & down the California coast until the Hog Island Oyster Company responded to her. Johns interviewed & got a position as the foreman of the farm. She began in August of 2023, & has since added many new insights to the team. Ms. Johns is the foreman on the Hog Island Oyster Company’s aquaculture farm. What this job entails is that she works between the management & administration side & the farming side. She does both administrative work & the farming of the oysters. Ms. Johns doesn’t own any aquariums, as she is not an aquaculture hobbyist. On the farm, the oysters are grown primarily in mesh bags, directly in the bay. 200 oysters are usually grown in 1 individual bag, though it can fluctuate. By growing the oysters directly in the bay, the oysters naturally clean the water, & they are able to get a more balanced diet. An adult oyster is able to clean up to 50 gallons of water per day. The number of oysters that are produced by the farm fluctuates every year, so unfortunately, we are unable to speak on that. As said in the introduction, the species of oysters produced on the farm are the Atlantic Oyster, Kumamoto Oyster, Olympia Oyster, & Pacific Oyster. Additionally, they currently produce Manila Clams. In the past, they have produced a few other species of marine bivalve, & they may do so again in the future. Since the oysters eat algae directly from the bay, they do not have any kind of feed. The farm has a hatchery facility in Humboldt County, where the oysters are bred. After the eggs have been hatched, they are shipped to the main farm. On average, the oysters have a 50% mortality rate. This rate can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as the OsHV-1 virus in the bay. Across the 2 farm facilities, there are 7 different life stages. These 7 life stages are the egg, trochophore larva, D-stage larva, veliger larva, pediveliger, spat, & adult. From egg to pediveliger, they are pelagic, meaning they live in the open ocean. After Pediveliger, they become benthic & begin living on the ocean floor. The egg is the first of the life stages & lasts for approximately 6 hours. After that, they will go into the trochophore stage, in which they will now be able to displace water to bring food closer. At 24 hours of life, they will enter the D-stage larva. In this larval stage, they will gain a velum, which is used to help in locomotion. At 48 hours of life, it will go into the veliger stage. In the veliger stage, the shell & hinge of the shell will begin to form, so that the adult oyster is able to open & close its valves. It will stay in this stage until 2 weeks of life when it will go into the Pediveliger stage of life. During this stage, they will fall to the ocean floor, in order to find a suitable place to metamorphose. Once it has found a place that is deemed acceptable, it will attach itself to the rocks & evolve into a spat. It will stay in the spat stage for a few months to 2 years when it will then become an adult oyster. Prior to becoming adults, the oysters will be measured in millimeters. Once they become full-fledged adults, they will be measured in inches. The minimum acceptable marketable size for an oyster is currently 2.5 inches. The Hog Island Oyster Company has multiple locations around California, where interested customers are able to purchase oysters on the half shell. Additionally, they have a small shop on their farm where customers are able to just purchase large bags of oysters & shuck them on their own.  Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Map Of The Lesser Antilles, & Guyana This article is the fifth instalment in the Ode to Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map up for analysis, is an antique map of the Caribbean Isles. It encompasses approximately 2/3rds of the Caribbean Sea. The map is in magnificent condition, aside from some yellow discolouration in the upper right corner, & the upper edges being curled from moisture. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the waters of the Caribbean. The Map Itself: Since the map is in English, there is no need to translate it, because this is the English version of our newsletter. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in 1807, by Irish Mapmaker, Robert Blachford. This map was found by the Maps of Antiquity company, & the original owner beyond that is unknown. It is unknown which country this was made in, as at the time, a multitude of European countries occupied the Caribbean, making it hard to determine which which is the one that it originated from. This area encompasses not only the lesser Antilles, but it also encompasses Guyana & North Venezuela. This map has no sea creature migration zones outlined on it. The map is extremely accurate, & shows the majority of the Caribbean islands, even the minor outlying islands. This map has no official name or cartographic collection that it is a part of. This map has very few topographical features, aside from The Orinoco River, & a few other Rivers. This map is uncoloured, for reasons unknown. It was not made for, or most likely used for Militaristic purposes. The map is centered on the Caribbean Sea, but not any specific country in it. This map has no rapids, underwater canyons, or things of such a nature. Since Lithography only became commercially popular in the 1820’s, & the map was made in 1807, lithography had not become commercially popular yet. Lithography was invented in 1798, so there is still a chance that it was made using that technique. The first technique it could have been made with was lithographic printing. In this method the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. The second method possible, is the engraving Method. This method was not to traditional at the time, though it could be done, it was not as common. In this technique, there are 5 jobs, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, the papermaker, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually there would only be 1-2 plates used, however it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Then after this, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. The first technique is more likely, as it could be done more easily & in higher quality. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Greater Blue-Ringed Octopus Of Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu (Hapalochlaena Lunulata) This months article will be about.. The western pacific island of Espiritu Santo! Espiritu Santo is an island that makes up the country of Vanuatu. It exists in the southwestern pacific ocean. It is incredibly far from land. Many marine animals from this isle migrated from Australia or other surrounding areas. The isle is approximately 3689.68 from mainland Vietnam. That is the closest to a continent that is considered “mainland”. It is a mere 998.36 miles from the Australian province of Queensland. It is also approximately 3343.68 nautical miles from the Antarctica. Vanuatu is extremely biodiverse due to the great climate conditions & the nutrients in the waters. However, there is one species in particular which stands out from the rest, that species is known as the Greater Blue-Ringed Octopus. A tiny octopus that can kill someone if stung. They are one of the most toxic marine cephalopods in the world. These creatures are found throughout the coastal waters of Espiritu Santo. They exhibit bright blue rings on their bell & their tentacles. This is an important characteristic as it can tell the difference between other species of octopi. These blue rings will flash as a warning sign for approximately a third of a second. They are incredibly small & the toxins that they inject you with can be lethal. They are native to the Indo-west pacific region. In this article we will discuss the life of the greater blue-ringed octopus, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the greater blue-ringed octopus, the distribution of the greater blue-ringed octopus, the scientific detailings of the greater blue-ringed octopus, & what to do in the event that you are attacked by a greater blue-ringed octopus. They are not considered to be endangered or threatened by modern scientists. The Life Of The Blue-Ringed Octopus This species was first described in 1832, however it was not originally called its modern name. It was named Octopus lunulatus at the time. It was offically discovered by Jene René Constant Quoy & Joseph Paul Gaimard. It is not known how exactly this creature was discovered. Even though it is incredibly deadly, it has a mere length average of 11 centimeters (4.33071 inches). They only weigh about 55 grams (0.121254 pounds or 0.055 kilograms) on average regardless of gender. However they may weigh as little as 10 grams (0.0220462 pounds or 0.01 kilograms) or much as 100 grams (0.220462 pounds or 0.1 kilograms). The average life span of them is 3.75 years, this is regardless of gender. Cephalopods in general are incredibly smart. However blue ringed octopi in particular are proven to have high levels of intelligence. It is not known exactly how long this species has existed for as a whole. They often consume small fish & crustaceans. They are cannibalistic & will consume each other while fighting over territory. They will consume what ever will fit in their beaks. They hunt by grabbing onto their prey & injecting it with deadly venom. They will then poke a hole in the exoskeleton of the animal & suck the animals remains out. They do not have teeth. They will then consume the prey. Most often they will hunt during the daylight hours. However, they may switch cycles of hunting during different hours throughout their lifetimes. It is not known how much they consume per day. Their metabolism is not very fast as they do not often swim very fast, instead opting to eat whatever passes by. The largest predator of this species is eels, specifically the Moray Eel. Whales, seals, & waterbirds also often hunt this animal. They often avoid interacting with humans & they lead a rather solitary life besides when they look for a mate. They will only attack humans if they feel threatened enough. They are incredibly territorial & do not enjoy other blue ringed octopi trespassing on their territory. As a reaction this octopus may consume the trespasser. They have eight tentacles & are often dark yellow, grey, tan, or beige in colour. They have a sac like head. They have bright blue rings all over their bodies & tentacles. The rings usually have dark yellow colouring on the inside. These rings will grow brighter as a warning sign that they will attack. The Mating Tactics, Procedures, Practices, & Cycles Of The Blue-Ringed Octopus Cephalopods mate in incredibly strange ways. The Blue-ringed octopus mates via sexual reproduction. They are not monogamous & do not form emotional bonds with each other romantically. They are not hermaphroditic & cannot change genders in any capacity. They will have the urge to mate once they reach adulthood. The females will only have one gestation period once before dying. If she survives longer she will have multiple. The male however, will mate with every female octopus he gets the chance to. They reach full sexual maturity at age 10 months to 12 months. This is for both genders of octopi. They do not appear to have a specific breeding month in which breeding spikes. This means that mating is a year-round event. However, the season in which most females lay their eggs is mid-winter. Their approximate gestation period is 4 months. The male will initiate courtship by stroking his arm along the female. After this the male will use a modified arm to eject the sperm. This arm has a sac directly attached to it that holds the raw sperm. After this the male will insert his modified arm into the females oviduct. She will not have the eggs fertilized immediately & will keep the sperm until she decides to lay her eggs. These eggs will hatch after approximately 4 months. She will lay 50 to 100 eggs. The female will take care of the eggs & carefully build a shelter for them during this time. When they hatch the babies will immediately swim off into the ocean. They will not stay around & will not fight with each other. After they hatch, the female will die. This baby octopus will grow extremely quickly & increase its body weight by 5% every day. It will consume many things very rapidly. After this the cycle is repeated. The Distribution Of The Greater Blue-Ringed Octopus The greater Blue-ringed octopus is found all throughout oceania. They are found from Sri Lanka, to the Philippines, & to the Solomon islands. They are found in especially high density off the coast of northern Australia. They are only found here & currently are not an invasive species anywhere. They prefer these tropical areas most likely due to good climate & abundance of food. As far as current knowledge goes, they are only found in water above 75° Fahrenheit (23.8889° Celsius). They also prefer shallow water which is another reason for this choice of habitat. They are not often found deeper then 20 meters (65.6168 feet). They are commonly found throughout tidal areas, shallow coral reefs, & can be even seen on top of clumps of algae. It is important to mention that if you happen to be in the Indo-West pacific, do not pick up octopi even if they look deceased. This species has no known subspecies. The Scientific Detailings Of The Greater Blue-Ringed Octopus Blue ringed octopi in general are infamous for their strong & potent venom. Their venom is composed of tetrodotoxin, histamine, tryptamine, octopamine, taurine, acetylcholine & dopamine. The reason that they developed this poison is for the purpose of hunting & defence. Once this venom has made contact you may experience nausea, headaches, respiratory arrest, overall pain, heart failure, blindness or vision impairment in 1 or both eyes, & in exceptional situations total paralysis. Due to the fact that they are cephalopods they may fit anywhere that their beak allows them to. They have special skin cell structures that allow them to flash their rings in a brighter fashion. These flashes are usually very bright & brief. The fast flashes are achieved using muscles under direct neurological control. The ring is hidden by contraction of muscles above the iridophores; relaxation of these muscles & contraction of muscles outside the ring expose the iridescence. They do not have bones at all or teeth. As for their anatomy, they have separate neurological functions for each tentacle. Also all of their organs are located in their bell. They move via jet propulsion. They suck in water & then push it out in order to move properly. In this way, they do not exactly swim. The image above illustrates their anatomy & the placement of their organs. They have a total of 3 hearts much like squid. They have 2 branchial hearts which pump blood to their gills. At this point the blood will take in oxygen & be sent off to the systemic heart. After this the systemic heart will pump the blood all over the body. Their blood is also blue instead of red. The reason for this is due to a copper rich protein known as Hemocyanin existing in their blood. The existence of this protein in their blood causes their blood to be blue. This is very similar to the iron in Hemoglobin in human blood. This blue blood exists in all cephalopods. This species most likely evolved from Monoplacophora. This is a small barnacle looking creature that has a single cap shaped shell. They have an incredibly complex neurological structure. They do not have a central brain as we think of it. They have individual systems for each tentacle. This is why if you chop off an octopus tentacle it will still move afterwards. They can also feel extreme amounts of pain. They can also feel emotions towards octopi & other humans. If they are wronged they may hold a grudge against people or other octopi until they die. However, they may also become emotional attached to humans. They may feel different about certain humans. They are able to recognize human faces to a certain extent. Their phylum is known as Mollusca. Mollusca is the 2nd largest phylum, just behind Arthopoda. Mollusca is however the largest marine phylum as it comprises approximately 23% of all documented marine species. The three most commonly found features defining modern species categorized under molluscs are the following: a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing & excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Their class is Cephalopoda. This class includes almost all species of cuttlefish, octopi, squid, & nautilus. Their order is Octopoda. This order contains the same types of species as Cephalopoda. A universal characteristic of this order is that all species classified under this are invertebrates. Their family is Octopodidae. This family contains the majority of all documented octopus species. Their genus is Hapalochlaena. This genus holds the 4 species of blue-ringed octopus. Their Binomial name is Hapalochlaena Lunulata. What To Do In The Event Of A Greater Blue-Ringed Octopus Attack Step. 1 Exit The Water Immediately If you are stung in the water it is important to exit the water. Avoid getting sand in the wound if possible. Step. 2 Keep The Injured Person Laying Down It is important to keep the person from panicking as well. Step. 3 Apply A Large Elastic Bandage On The Injured Site. Use pressure immobilization bandages to wrap the area. Wrap tightly. Step. 4 Add Splint To The Limb That Is Stung. Splint the area that is stung with any firm object that is available. Make sure to avoid moving the limb. Step. 5 Call Emergency Medical Services This step is crucial to the victims survival. Greater Blue-ringed octopus bites can cause death in as little as 20 minutes. If you are in Australia call 000. If you are on Vanuatu call 22100. If the person does not receive proper care they may go into total paralysis. Step. 6 Prepare To Perform Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Due to the sting, the person may go into cardiac arrest. If emergency services do not arrive on time you must be ready to perform CPR. In order to do so, begin by placing the person on a flat, firm, & stable surface. After this give 30 chest compressions. Place both hands centered on the chest. Your shoulders should be directly over your hands & your elbows should be locked. Make sure to allow the chest to return to normal position before the next compression. Give 2 breaths as well. Open the airway to a past-neutral position using the head-tilt/chin-lift technique. Ensure each breath lasts about 1 second & makes the chest rise; allow air to exit before giving the next breath. Act quickly as venom can cause death within 20 minutes. Directories / Credits https://octonation.com/octopedia/greater-blue-ringed-octopus/ https://www.aims.gov.au/docs/projectnet/blue-ringed-octopus.html https://octopusworlds.com/blue-ringed-octopus/ https://animals.net/blue-ringed-octopus/ https://www.divescotty.com/underwater-blog/blue-ringed-octopus.php http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2013/koehn_kate/reproduction.htm https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23053367/ https://www.redcross.org/take-a-class/cpr/performing-cpr/cpr-steps https://www.healthline.com/health/blue-ringed-octopus-bite https://www.mydr.com.au/first-aid-self-care/first-aid-for-bites-and-stings-blue-ringed-octopus/ https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mind-of-an-octopus/ https://www.dw.com/en/do-octopuses-have-emotions/a-61246001 https://theworld.org/stories/2016-07-11/more-surprising-things-about-octopus-our-favorite-cephalopod Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter, will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however it is a separate entity. In todays article, we will catalog the various species of seagrass found in & around Garrapata Beach. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, this was done with the correct permits & research, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do it. On October 29th, 2023, we sent 3 field agents to Garrapata Beach. What they found was that there are 2 primary species of seagrass / kelp found along the beach. These species are Macrocystis Pyfiera, & Ulva Lactuca. We have taken the coordinates &, a sample of these species, in order to study them. To be clear, this is a survey that will only be conducted once, & not yearly like the Malibu surveys. This beach is a part of the Garrapata State Park, located along the Northern Coast of California. The state park is located just south of Monterey, next to Carmel-by-the-sea. This survey is a stand alone study. With that being said, let us delve into the seagrasses of Garrapata Beach. The Results Of The Survey Seagrass Species 1: Nereocystis Luetkaena (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp) The most prominent species of seagrass found along the coastal area of Garrapata State Park, is Nereocystis Luetkaena. Nereocystis Luetkaena is a species of marine plant grows from California to the Aleutian islands in Alaska. Occasionally, uprooted individuals from this species will float from California, to Baja California, which will result in them washing up on the beaches of Baja California. This seaweeds thick stems washed up along the central part of the beach in fairly high quantities. This species of kelp usually grows in subtidal areas, with high waves. Nereocystis is an annual plant, which means it will grow from a singular spore to a full plant in one year. In the winter, the kelp will die off the year, causing large blooms to rise to the surface & wash up along the Pacific Coast. Unfortunately, we couldn’t measure the specimen as when we tried to, it completely disintegrated. Additionally,we couldn’t notate the coordinates of where this specimen was found, due to the equipment not being waterproof. Our specimen was not the stipe of the plant, but it was a leaf blade of the plant. The stipe of the plant is a dark brown colour, & semi-conical in shape. The leaves are green & located on the top of the plant. These leaves are rectangular. The stipe is hallow, & can be as long as 118 feet long. The ball shaped pneumatocyst atop the stipe contains carbon monoxide, which is a deadly gas. This species is a favourite food of kelp crabs, who can be seen grazing in bullwhip kelp forests. Seagrass Species 2: Ulva Lactuca (Sea Lettuce) Ulva Lactuca is the second most prominent seagrass species found along Garrapata Beach. Ulva Lactuca is a species of seagrass found all over the world. Ulva Lactuca grows along both the eastern & western coasts of North & South America, Europe, the Caribbean, Africa, The Indian Ocean, All of Asia, & Oceania. The leaves of this species are extremely recognizable, as they are flat, thin, neon green, & rectangular. This species often grows along the subtidal rocky areas. Our specimen of this species was 6.29921 inches (16 centimeters) long, & 1.5748 inches (4 centimeters) at its widest point. It was found at 36°25’10 North, & 121°54’54” West. This species was extremely scarce along Garrapata Beach, except for 1 whole plant washing up along with a large piece of Nereocystis Luetkaena. The only individuals of this species that washed up were found along the central area of the beach. In Scotland, Ulva Lactuca is used in soups & salads. In Hawaiian cuisine, Ulva Lactuca is called limu & is often used to top different dishes. It is also used to adorn hula skirts. Rotting Ulva Lactuca is extremely deadly, & has caused at least 2 deaths. The Rotting thallus will produce Hydrogen Sulfide, which causes cell hypoxia, & death. This is why when handling large quantities of Ulva Lactuca, safety precautions need to be in place. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of The Greek Island Of Crete Todays article will discuss the known history of the greek island of Crete. Crete is approximately 52.33 Nautical/Marine miles from mainland Greece. It is also approximately 96.98 miles from mainland Turkey. The formating for this article will be slightly different. We hope that this does not cause any navigational issues or confusion. It is currently owned by the country of Greece. Crete has a total of 24 municipalities. It has 4 regional units which are known as Chania, Rethymno, Heraklion, & Lasithi. As of 2023 there are a total of 5 cities on Crete. Crete is an island that exists in the eastern Mediterranean region. It is the largest island owned by Greece. It is also the 5th largest island in the Mediterranean sea. Crete’s history is incredibly interesting due to the many groups of people that have lived on the island. Also due to the fact that it was colonized during certain eras in which many large historical events went on. Crete was also the center of many ancient civilizations. It has a long winding history from war to war & has many different & interesting relationships with different historical city states. It is also incredibly well documented. Different governments of Greece have caused many different things to become of Crete. There are also many marine mythological creatures that are rumoured to have been located here. In this article we will discuss the discoveries & documented history of Crete as a whole, The known aboriginals of Crete, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Crete, & finally a segment on the Cretian economy. With that being said, let us delve into the isle of Crete. The Documented History Of Crete Before Colonization By The Ottoman Empire & Greece As A Unified Nation Prehistoric Age / Neolithic Age A claim was made in 2002 by the palaeontologist known as Gerard Gierlinski that the fossil footprints on crete were from 5.6 million years ago. He claims that they were made by early human ancestors. However this claim has yet to be fully confirmed. Excavation throughout the 2000’s have found stone tools that were approximately 130,000 years old. This would put it at 127,991 B.C. This would also put it in the period of time known as the lower Paleolithic. This lead to a reorganization of many timelines due to the previous thought that the first crossing of the Mediterranean was in approximately 12,000 B.C. These stone tools were found in the region of Crete known as Plakias. These tools were mostly hand axes that were made in the Acheulean Type. They were made of a kind of quartz. After this point there were 2 settlements built on Crete. There settlements were most likely from Africans who used rafts to sail into the Mediterranean. The settlements were called Knossos & Trapeza. There are also archeological records that depict houses, palaces, roads, paintings, & other forms of art. However, we have no way of checking whether these records are correct or not. These settlements were not constantly in use & would sometimes go years without a having people in them. Colonization was not continuous. The first settlers introduced numerous species as the growing civilization required food & resources. These were mostly goats, sheep, cattle, pigs, dogs & legumes. As the civilization grew, they began slowly forcing species to extinction or to migrate. Before the first settlements, species such as Paleoloxodon chaniensis (pygmy elephant) & the Martes Foina (beech martin) roamed the island. However most of these prehistoric animals that were found on Crete, were forced into total extinction by the last ice age. This same chain of events also occurred on many other Mediterranean islands, most notoriously Sicily. The remains of a bronze palace in the settlement of Knossos date back to the 7th Millennium B.C. Surprisingly, Knossos to this day remains the only aceramic site of Crete. After Colonization The Minoan Crete The Minoans were a bronze age civilization of the Aeagan sea. Especially Crete. They began in approximately 3500 B.C. They built complex structures & were urbanizing the islands of the Aeagan sea rather fast. The majority of these structures & civilizations that they built were after 2000 B.C. However, they began on a decline in about 1450 B.C. This was until 1100 B.C were they finally ended as a group & would never come back. They had 2 scripts for the purpose of writing, these scirpts were known as Linear A & the second one did not have a name. The second one looked quite similar to Egyptian hieroglyphics. The Minoans most likely got the idea for the second language from the Egyptians, or there was at least some sort of inspiration between the 2. We have discovered clay tablets in which they would inscribe Linear A. These tablets have primarily been found on Crete however they have also been found on a few other Aeagan isles. The name Minoan derives from the legendary king known as King Minos. It is not clear the government system that they had in place. They did have arts & had distinction pottery styles. They also enjoyed having largely embellished palaces. This can be seen as a palace-complex has been uncovered in Knossos which is one of the oldest & most well preserved Minoan sites. These palaces have also been found at palaces such as Phaistos. These were incredibly intricate for the time & were often multi-story. They would also have drainage systems. The queen of this civilization also had a bath & a flushing toilet. Their religious & government systems were relatively unknown has they did not write very much down. The Minoans faced many earthquakes & different natural disasters. This caused many different issues for the developing civilization. Their downfall has been linked to an eruption of the volcano that was so bad, they it blew the island of Thera completely apart. From this they faced tsunamis & earthquakes as well as other air related side effects. The Roman Crete Marcus Antonius Creteus attacked the island of Crete in 71 B.C & was repelled. Then in 69 BC, Rome commissioned Quintus Caecilius Metellus &, following a ferocious three-year campaign, Crete was conquered for Rome in 66 BC. This was after it became a senatorial province of the roman empire in 67 B.C. Metellus earning the victorious title of "Creticus" as an honour for his conquest and subjugation of Crete. After this point it was known It was known as Crete & Cyrenaica. It is today part of modern Greece & Libya. Its capital of this province was named named Gortyn. This capital would have been in the area around the modern day archeological site known basilica. Basilica was a large, multi-story building that was used by the romans for various purposes. As the roman empire expanded, the church finally began in the 1st century. Something that was revealed in Epistle To Titus which was one of the 3 pastoral epistles, is that the people of Crete were always considered liars, evil Beasts, & gluttons. It was unfortunately disestablished as a province in the western roman empire in 297 A.D. However it remained part of the eastern Roman Empire until it became property of the Liberian muslims in the 820’s. Arab / Liberian Crete In the 820’s, the Liberians took Crete from the eastern roman empire. They than established the island as a emirate. The archbishop known as Cyril of Gortyn was murdered by these Liberians. They destroyed the city & made sure that it would never be recognized again. The city was never reorganized & therefore never reoccupied. They built a new capital known as Candia which would be near modern day Heraklion. After this point it became the center for muslim culture & a head point for many years. Campaigns from the eastern roman empire to recover the island came but however almost none of them moved past the tactical planning stage. However, in the year of 961 A.D when Nikephoros Phokas conquered Crete. They held the island until 1204 during the 4th Crusade. After this the island was disputed between the Genoese & the Venetians. The Venetian Crete Crete was captured by the Venatians during the 4th Crusade. At this point the Crete were known as the Kingdom Of Candia. It officially became known as an overseas colony of the Republic of Venice. The Cretans were clearly not very fond of this as many rebellions broke out. The most important of which is known as the revolt of Saint Titus. This revolt occurred in 1363. It was caused by Cretan aboriginals & venetian settlers on Crete being exasperated by the draconian tax policy. These groups of people banded together & overthrew the Venetian officials. They then became an independent republic. However this did not last for long as after 5 years it was recaptured by the Venetians. After this period of rebellion the new era of renaissance in art & culture finally made its way to the island. Literature flourished on the island & many greek poets emerged. A quite famous epic romantic poem that can be traced to this age is known as Erotokritos by Vitsentzos Kornaros. A dialect of greek was also formed, this dialect would only be spoken by Crete. Painting also became much more popular & many prominent greek painters can be traced to being born on Crete at this time. This may have influenced the way that they worked. However, the ottomans would go on to capture Crete in 1669. The Ottoman Crete The ottoman empire captured Crete during the Cretan war which lasted from 1645 to 1669. This was possibly the longest siege in history. They overran Crete & managed to kick out most Venetians & the Venetian government. The last Venetian outpost which was known as Spinalonga, was captured in 1718. Crete remained in the clutches of the ottoman empire until 1861. There was a diversity of religion due to the different types of settlers on the island. It was also at this point where the Muslim religion became more widely spread. During the the last Ottoman census in 1881, it was found that Christians were 76% of the population, & astoundingly Cretan Turks made up only 24%. Christians were over 90% of the population in 19 out of the 23 of the districts of Crete. However, Muslims were over 60% of the population in the three large towns on the north coast, & in Monofatsi. When the greek war of independence happened in 1821, the christian Cretans saw an opportunity for freedom. The christians began revolting, this was met with fierce resistance from the ottoman turks. The ottomans executed several bishops due to the conflict. The Turkish Muslims were driven into the large fortified towns on the northern coast & it appears from our current records that as many as 60% of them died from plague or famine while there. These towns were mainly constructed by the ottoman turks. The christian Cretans also suffered severely with the result of losing approximately 21% of their population in the 1830s. The Most Destructive Man Caused & Natural Disasters Of Crete No.1 365 Cretan Earthquake The 365 earthquake was an earthquake that occurred on July 21st 365 A.D. It occurred in the eastern Mediterranean. This earthquake nearly blew the island of Crete as we know it apart. Unfortunately we don’t have an exact measurement, however it is estimated that it was at a magnitude of 8.5 or higher. This earthquake also triggered a quite large tsunami. The exact number is not record however thousands of deaths occurred a as a direct result of this earthquake. No.2 Various Annual Flashfloods Crete has annual flash floods every year quite predictably. In 2022 they caused 2 deaths & they are destined to cause more. They don’t often cause mudslides. The areas that flood most often are coastal canyons. Coastal areas in general are also more susceptible to flash flooding. Areas with rivers also count a costal areas. The Economic State Of Crete The economic state of Crete is extremely stable & does not seem to have taken a large negative impact due to the pandemic. Its main industries are manufacturing & tourism. Unlike other Mediterranean islands, Crete can still independently operate & function without its tourism industry. The manufacturing industry however has recently been on a slow & small decline. The tourism industry became most prominent in the 1970’s & Crete has been the same ever sense. The tourism industry has been slowly expanding & growing throughout the island as well. Tourism is so prominent that Crete receives approximately 3 million tourists per year. Agriculture is also prominent however is significantly smaller industry compared to the other 2 major ones. Some common crops & exports from Crete are: wine, raisins, grapes, citrus fruits, water lemons, tomatoes, & potatoes. Processing & packaging also make up a large portion of their income. They are incredibly self sustainable. The island also had a higher GDP per capita then mainland Greece. The current inflation rate for Crete is unknown. The GDP per capita on the island in 2015 was 13,912. Directories / Credits https://www.britannica.com/place/Crete https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mino/hd_mino.htm https://www.britannica.com/topic/Minoan-civilization https://ancient-greece.org/history/minoan.html Margaritis, Giorgos (2006). Ιστορία του ελληνικού εμφυλίου πολέμου 1946-1949 [History of the Greek Civil War 1946-1949] (in Greek). Vol. II. Athens: Vivliorama. ISBN 9608087139 . Moorey, Chris. A History of Crete (Haus, 2019) Detorakis, Theocharis E. (1986). Ιστορία της Κρήτης [History of Crete] (in Greek). Athens. OCLC 715204595 . McTiernan, Mick, A Very Bad Place Indeed For a Soldier. The British involvement in the early stages of the European Intervention in Crete. 1897 – 1898, King's College, London, September 2014 . Panagiotakis, Nikolaos M. (1987). "Εισαγωγικό Σημείωμα ("Introduction")". In Panagiotakis, Nikolaos M. (ed.). Crete, History and Civilization (in Greek). Vol. I. Vikelea Library, Association of Regional Associations of Regional Municipalities. pp. XI–XX. Marie-Louise Winbladh, Minoans and Mycenaeans in west Crete. The Greek-Swedish Excavations at Chaniá, Stockholm 2000. Marie-Louise Winbladh, Adventures of an archaeologist. Memoirs of a museum curator, AKAKIA Publications, London 2020 https://balkaninsight.com/2022/10/17/the-bad-weather-left-two-people-dead-and-a-huge-disaster-on-the-greek-island-of-crete/ https://greekreporter.com/2022/10/15/flash-floods-crete/ https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/news/2022/10/15/one-dead-and-others-missing-in-flash-floods-in-greek-island-crete https://www.nature.com/articles/srep01285 https://www.britannica.com/event/Mediterranean-earthquake-and-tsunami-of-365 http://www.thehotel.gr/info/en/Crete/Economy https://www.interkriti.org/crete/pg/?pg=1487404 https://www.keeptalkinggreece.com/2018/01/24/greece-per-capita-gdp-elstat/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Marine Hall Of Distinction: Yoichirō Hirase This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main month series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Our marine biologist for this month's article, is Yoichiro Hirase. Yoichiro Hirase is a Japanese Malacologist, & businessman. He is widely considered to be the first of the great Japanese Malacolgists. He together with his son, Shintarō Hirase, assembled the second-largest collection of molluscs, ever. We published an article on his son, Shintarō Hirase, on September 15th of 2023. His collection at its largest was 8,000 specimens. After Yoichiro’s death, his son inherited the Hirase Collection, & continued it. His Son managed to grow it to 15,000 at its largest. He was also the founder of Hirase’s Conchological Magazine, & Hirase’s Conchological Museum. Copies of Hirase’s Conchological Magazine can be found online today, most notably through this link: https://archive.org . Yoichiro was also a mentor of Tokubei Koruda, another famous Japanese malacologist. Unfortunately, there isn’t much information on his personal life, so certain parts of this article will not be very fleshed out. Hirase’s research caused approximately 27 species of marine shellfish to be named in his honour, & his enthusiasm for malacology is not forgotten. In this article, we will discuss his early life & education, his later life & career, & finally his awards, honourables, achievements & accomplishments. With that being said, let us delve into the life of Yoichiro Hirase. His Early Life & Education Yoichiro Hirase was born on December fourth of 1859. He was born on Awaji Island, in the Hyōgo Prefecture, located in the south of Japan. He was born the eldest son of a wealthy family. As a child, he was said to be physically weak, but very intelligent. His Later Life & Career At the beginning of his Career, he was not in the field of malacology. He started off a trader, selling poultry, seeds, & avicultural products. He first began in the field of selling, & trading shells in 1898, at the age of 39. In 1901, he hired Tokubei Kuroda as a houseboy. He originally hired Tokubei to clean his large house, & watch the children during the day, but seeing promise in this young man, he paid him to go to school & learn English in night classes. Hirase also arranged for him to learn systematics biology. The fellow excelled in these subjects, & soon became pivotal to the founding of the Hirase Shell Museum, which was opened in 1913. Kuroda became Hirase’s secretary, & handled the majority of correspondence with other researchers, & scientists. Kuroda also helped to establish Hirase’s Conchological Magazine. Unfortunately, the museum closed after only 6 years due to Hirase’s Illness, & due to financial pressure from World War I. From 1898 to 1925, he amassed a collection of 8,000 shells. He personally didn’t usually go on missions to get them himself, instead getting a team of field dealers together & having them get the specimens. Unfortunately, on May 25th of 1925, Yoichiro Hirase passed away. His legacy in the world of Malacology will never be forgotten, & his contributions will be remembered. His Awards, Achievements, Honourables, & Accomplishments He had approximately 27 marine biological species named after him. He assembled the largest mollusc collection in the world, which grew to 15,000 at its largest. He opened Hirase’s Conchological Museum, which was one of the first shell museums in Japan, & most certainly sparked public interest in the topic. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Kajin - Shell Men” Written By Unknown & Published on the 8th of March, 2018. Published by Living Culture - Lixil. Retrieval Date: September 15th, 2023. https://livingculture.lixil.com/en/topics/assets/kaijin_3.pdf Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding The Greek Island Of Crete Todays Article Will Discuss, The Oceans Surrounding Island Of Crete. Crete is approximately 52.33 Nautical/Marine miles from mainland Greece. It is also approximately 96.98 miles from mainland Turkey. The island of Crete is owned by Greece as of 2023. Crete is in the Mediterranean sea. It is in the eastern Mediterranean. It is the 5th largest island in the Mediterranean sea. Crete is incredibly biodiverse & interesting due to species that are only found throughout the Mediterranean, such as the Mediterranean monk seal. Crete has a coastline that stretches over 650 miles (1046.07 kilometers) long. It is also common place for recreational oceanic activities. This is due to how unpolluted & beautiful the waters generally are. However, Cretes waters are somewhat mysterious & have many strange tales told of it. The Minoans of Crete made sculptures of what looked to be sea monsters. There are also many different types of greek oceanic monsters that were believed in by the greeks. The Minoans, followed greek mythology. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the greek isle of Kriti. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Crete Crete is one of the most southern greek islands. It is also the largest greek island. The actual salinity of the waters within a 5 Nautical/Marine mile radius has not been measured or has not been released to the public domain. There are no factors that would cause a change in the salinity level around the island. Salt deposits also seem to be more common around the island. However, the average salinity of the Mediterranean sea at any given time is 38 parts per thousand. So it can be assumed that the salinity of the island is around 38 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. The temperature chart for crete can be found a plethora of websites, here are a few that are the simplest to navigate: https://www.seatemperature.org , SeaTemperature.infohttp , WaterTemperature.nethttps , SeaTemperatu.rehttps, & finally https://weather-and-climate.com . The tides are very calm & there is barely any tide at all. Waves larger then 2 feet are very unusual. There is very rarely a high surf that would cause danger to a person. This makes it a great place for recreational swimmers. The deepest oceanic areas of the island are located on the northeastern edge of the island. The ocean reaches a maximum depth of 10,000 feet (3,048 meters). However some nautical maps claim a maximum depth of a mere 8,500 feet (2590.8 meters). There is not a current around the island & sudden currents are not common. There is also very low riptide which makes recreational swimming easier. However, just because swimming is usually safe it does not mean that you should not listen to any advisories or warnings put out by the greek government. Oceanic pollution on Crete is not bad at all. The water is perfectly safe to swim in & as of 2023 has some of the cleanest water among the greek islands. The Most Important Marine Ecosystems Of Crete Wetlands / Marshland Crete has beautiful wetlands & estuaries all throughout the island. There are countless of these found along river banks on the island. These wetlands usually have wading birds, various fish, & water snakes. Many aquatic birds live in this area, making it somewhat delicate. These areas are commonly used for bird watching. They are mostly salt water however a few are freshwater. These wetlands usually filter off into smaller pond areas. They are incredibly biodiverse & also a few of them effectively function as dams. The most common seagrass found in this area is known as Posidonia Oceanica (Mediterranean Tapeweed). These areas are mostly located in the western areas of Crete. Underwater Rocky Areas These areas are found close off the coast of Crete. They usually consist of small rock formations which fish will use as shelter. Oftentimes these areas are found anywhere from 10 feet (3.048000 meters) to 240 feet (73.152 meters deep. However they can be found deeper. Oftentimes this is the hunting ground of squid & octopi. This ecosystem is one of the most commonly found. This area is one of the most versatile. Seagrass Beds This area can be found anywhere off the coast of Crete. The only seagrass species found here is known as Posidonia Oceanica. These areas are usually home to many species & are often the most egg-laying grounds for species. This ecosystem is also often one of the most delicate types of ecosystems. The seagrass has many unique uses to different species. Coral Reefed Areas These areas are found dotted off the coast of the island. They are usually found between 1/2 of a mile to 4 miles off shore. However the coral are not like the corals off the tropics. These corals are calcified algae colonies. This was discovered during an experiment by the Thalassa Foundation. One of the divers Dimitris Poursanidis, said this. “These formations are biogenic structures, Their base is mainly red, orange & purple algae, which have a special characteristic. They coat their cell walls with calcite, one of the crystalline forms of calcium carbonate which is found dissolved in seawater.”. This creates a unique effect as creatures can safely make shelters in the coral while it is still growing. These structures will also create natural bumps & holes which later get occupied by marine animals. The Documented Marine Flora Of Crete Crete is not very biodiverse when it comes to marine plants. There is only 1 native seagrass species that is found near Crete. That species is known as Posidonia Oceanica. This species is found all around the island, including around the marshes. It provides many things for different species, such as food, shelter, attracting other species, & generally enriching the oceanic ecosystem. However seagrasses aren’t the only marine plants, The Pancratium Maritmium (Sea daffodil) has also naturalized itself throughout the island. This species isn’t exactly a “marine” plant because it doesn’t live underwater, however it does live on coastal sand dunes on different parts of Crete. It sprouts in the sand & grows on the beach, getting nutrients from the ocean in the process. It often gets covered in sand so that makes it sort of scarce. It look similar to an average lily that would be found on land. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Crete Crete is extremely biodiverse when it comes to marine fauna. Crete is one of the nutrient rich areas which attracts creatures from all throughout the Mediterranean. Most namely the Mediterranean monk seal. Crete appeals to many different species of smaller fish which is most likely how it got so diverse today. It is also marine protected which provides a sense of security. This is much better then say a bit further northwest or really anywhere else in the Mediterranean where fishing takes place more often. Many of these species live here year round however there are a few that will migrate out of the Mediterranean. With that being said, let us get into the most important species to the marine ecosystems of Crete. They are as follows: Monachus Monachus (Mediterranean monk seal), Caretta Caretta (Loggerhead turtle), Octopus Vulgaris (Common octopus), Ornate Wrasse ( ), Loligo Vulgaris (European squid), Sardina Pilchardus (European pilchard), Spicara Smaris (Picarel), Mullus surmuletus (red mullet), Pagellus Erythrinus (common pandora), Dentex Macrophthalmus (Large-eye dentex), Dentex Dentex (Common Dentex), Merluccius merluccius (Whiting), Epinephelus aeneus (white grouper), Epinephelus marginatus (dusky geouper), Conger Conger (European conger), Scomber Japonicus (chub mackerel), Seriola dumerelli (yellowtail amberjack), Sarda Sarda (Atlantic Bonito), Xiphias Gladius (swordfish), Thunnus thynnus (northern bluefin tuna), Mustelus mustelus (smooth hound), Squalus Acanthias (piked dogfish), Prionace glauca (blue shark), Exocoetus Voltians (tropical two-wing flying fish), Zeus Faber (John dory), Mola Mola (ocean sunfish), Chelidonichthys lastoviza (Streaked gurnard), Balistes carolinensis (Grey Triggerfish), Torpedo Nobiliana (Atlantic torpedo), Paracentrotus lividus (purple sea urchin), species from the seahorse genus of hippocampus, Sepia officinalis (cuttlefish), & Finally Loligo Duvauceli (Indian ocean squid). How The Marine Resources Of Crete Were Utilized Historically & Modernly The Minoans were great sailors without a doubt. They occupied the island for a long period of time. These oceans would act as a source of food & transport for them. They valued the ocean & would often display their love for the ocean in their arts. Modernly, humans have used the ocean surrounding Crete for commercial fishing, cruises, scuba diving, & snorkelling. However, the harbours on Crete have slowly been running out the wild life. Humans have also somewhat terrorized the wildlife with overfishing, oil spills, & boat fuel. Most notably, in 2017 when a tanker left a trail of oil that totalled a mile in length. This shows that humans should evaluate the benefits that they get from hunting a certain creature & then evaluate what the outcome would be for that species. This also shows that humans should improve their ways of carrying oil via ocean. Directories / Credits https://www.worldatlas.com/amp/seas/sea-of-crete.html https://www.incrediblecrete.gr/en/islands/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330600209_Seagrass_Mapping_and_Monitoring_Along_the_Coasts_of_Crete_Greece https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/pancratium-maritimum/ https://www.intocrete.net/features/wildflowers.asp https://www.sfakia-crete.com/sfakia-crete/crete-sealife.html https://www.explorecrete.com/nature/fish-2.html https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Art/ https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/greek-island-bay-black-oil-spill-salamis-selinia-taker-sinks-ecological-disaster-athens-a7944291.html?amp https://www.dla.mil/About-DLA/News/News-Article-View/Article/1362909/dla-energy-helps-clean-up-oil-spill-in-greece/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa