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Marine Hall Of Distinction: Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates. Ruth Deborah Gates was one of the world’s foremost experts on coral ecology, & the effects of ocean acidification on coral. She founded the Gates Coral Laboratory, & has innovated astonishing techniques regarding coral conservation. Her techniques involved figuring out what exactly caused corals to survive stress, & genetically amplifying the gene that caused it to survive. She was also the director of the Hawai’i Institute for Marine Biology, located on Coconut Island.    According to her testimony, she has a deep passion for the field, & has had it since she was an adolescent. In addition to her career as a scientist, marine biologist, & laboratory director, she has done quite a lot of public speaking, mentorship, & working on documentaries. She & her work were featured in the 2017 Emmy-winning documentary “Chasing Coral”. In this article, we shall discuss the Education & Formative Years Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates, The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates & the Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honorables Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates. With that being said, let us delve into the life of one of the most well-versed coral biologists of the 21st Century. The Education & Formative Years Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates Ruth Deborah Gates was born on March 28th, 1962. She was born in Akrotiri, which is an area controlled by the British on the island of Cyprus. She was born to John Amos Gates, a Royal British Airforce Intelligence Officer, & Muriel Peel Gates, a physiotherapist. With her father in the military, she was always moving around as a child. For her education, she was sent to a boarding school in Kent, England. Her intense fascination with the ocean & coral biology was always present, however, it truly began to blossom during her university years. She enrolled & studied at the esteemed Newcastle University, & earned a Bachelor of Science in Marine Biology Biology. Graduating in 1984, she went on a diving trip to the West Indies to study coral. On this trip, she became absolutely enraptured by them. Soon after, in 1985, she moved to the West Indies to study these corals. She would get her doctorate in Marine Biology in the year 1990, from the same university. Her thesis was on the subject of Seawater temperature & algal-cnidarian symbiosis. The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates Her first large research project was about coral bleaching events in Jamaica. Soon after, she would conduct research at the University Of California, Los Angeles, & the University of Hawai’i. She officially joined the University of Hawai’i in 2003. It is here where she studied how coral reefs function, & what made some corals survive high temperatures. In the year 2013, the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation offered 10,000$ to anyone or any group who could offer the most promising proposal to mitigate the effects of ocean acidification. Gates & another scientist, Madeline Van Oppen, a scientist with the Australian Institute of Marine Science, rose to the challenge. They managed to develop highly resilient coral strains, & won the award. Along with the 10,000 dollars, the foundation granted them a 4 million dollar grant, with the long-term goal of developing a stock of coral strains that can replace certain dying coral reefs of the world. Despite criticism of the logistics, & financial support required for such undertakings, the scientist persevered. In 2014, her brother, Timothy Gates, introduced her to Robin Burton, who would later become her wife. The pair would be in September of 2018. & remained married until Gate’s passing. In 2015, founded & directed the Gates Coral Laboratory, at the Hawai’i Institute of Marine Biology. She would direct the laboratory for 3 more years, until her unfortunate passing. Gates & her team hosted the first coral restoration conference at the Hawai’i Institute Of Marine Biology in 2017, which brought together some of the world's best coral biologists to discuss coral restoration. Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates passed away at the age of 56, on October 25th in Kailua, Hawai’i. She passed at Castle Hospital. She passed away due to complications from a surgery related to diverticulitis. Purportedly, she also had cancer that had spread to her brain. Throughout her life, she enjoyed karate, & earned a third-degree black belt in it. She had a deep respect for the martial art, so much so that she started a small school for it in Hawai’i. Additionally, she learned how to remodel homes, & mastered the art of cooking. Throughout her career, she was always accessible to the public, & did a lot of public speaking & a few interviews. The super corals that she engineered will have an incredible impact on coral ecosystems, as well as humans. Her contributions to coral reef biology will not be forgotten, & her contributions will have a long-lasting impact on the coral reefs of our world. The Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honourables Of Ruth Deborah Gates Achievement No. 1: She Founded The Gates Coral Laboratory, which is still in operation at the time of publishing. Achievement No. 2: She was awarded the Regents Medal for Excellence in Research. Achievement No. 3: She engineered super corals that can survive extremely high temperatures, along with scientist Madeline Van Oppen. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “In Memoriam: Ruth D. Gates”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the University of Hawai’i. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://research.hawaii.edu/noelo/in-memoriam-ruth-d-gates/ Citation No. 2: “Ruth Gates, Who Made Saving Coral Reefs Her Mission, Is Dead at 56”, Written By Katharine Q. Seeyle, & Published on November 5th, 2018. Published by the New York Times. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/05/obituaries/ruth-gates-dead-marine-biologist-who-championed-coral.html Citation No. 3: “Ruth D. Gates (1962-2018)”, Written by Peter J. Edmunds, & Doctor M. Weis, & Published on December 10th, 2018. Published by Springer Nature. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0763-4 Citation No. 4: “Ruth Gates Obituary” Written by Barbara Brown, & Published on November 22nd, 2018. Published by The Guardian. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://amp.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/22/ruth-gates-obituary Citation No. 5: “Ruth Gates, renowned coral scientist & conservation advocate, dies at 56”, Written by Christie Wilcox & Published on October 31st, 2018. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/ruth-gates-renowned-coral-scientist-and-conservation-advocate-dies-at-56/2018/10/31/535ca9da-dc73-11e8-b732-3c72cbf131f2_story.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Qeqertalik, Greenland Today's article will discuss the oceans surrounding the Greenlandic state of Qeqertalik. Qeqertalik is the south central part of Greenland. It is shaped somewhat like a square & is an independent administrative zone. Greenland is an island off the coast of northern Canada which is owned by the European country of Denmark. The indigenous peoples of Greenland collectively call Greenland Kalaallit Nunaat. This roughly translates into “The land of the people”, However, that translation cannot be 100% confirmed. Qeqertalik is one of the smallest municipalities of Greenland, it is shaped rectangularly. It is an incredibly unique & diverse marine due to it being rather untouched by most humans & due to the abundance of natural resources. The municipality of Qeqertalik is 538.26 Nautical / Marine miles (619.418546 miles or 996.85752 kilometers) from mainland Canada at its closest points. Qeqertalik is also 1298.35 Nautical / Marine miles (1494.114496 miles or 2404.5442 kilometers from the continental United States. This does not include the islands of Canada, this is only the continental areas of Canada. Including islands, Greenland is a mere 12.34 Nautical / Marine Miles (14.200618 miles or 22.85368 kilometers) from Canadian territory. Due to Greenland's placement, it is often assumed that Greenland does not have very exciting marine life. It is also assumed that Greenland doesn’t have a diverse marine ecosystem. However, Greenland in fact does have many marine animals that live around the isle. One of the best examples of creatures that live around Qeqertalik in particular are narwhals which are found in very few other parts of the world. Not only does it have diverse fauna, but it has many unique strains of algae found around Qeqertalik. However, the majority of these marine species are incredibly hard to observe. This will be discussed throughout the article. In this article we will not be discussing all of Greenland's oceans, we will only be discussing the specific oceans around Qeqertalik. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of the marine resources of Qeqertalik. With that being said, let us delve into the frigid waters of Qeqertalik. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Qeqertalik The average salinity in the waters surrounding Qeqertalik is 33.75 parts per thousand on average at any given time. The lowest measured salinity is 33 parts per thousand & the highest measured salinity is 34.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. Greenland sits in the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean has the lowest salinity out of all existing oceans. This makes the existence of brine pools or salty deposits of water very unlikely. There are no ongoing factors that would contribute to the Salinity level being rapidly changed. The water temperature of Qeqertalik is found on a plethora of websites but the easiest one to navigate is https://www.tideschart.com . This contains both the water temperature & tidal charts. Due to Qeqertaliks' placement, the tides usually never get over 12.1391 feet tall (3.7 meters). However, for the Greenlandic Sea, the tide is not the same. Instead having an average high tide of 14.4357 feet (4.4 meters). These waves are usually the reason for ice packs not being near shore. The reason for that is due to these waves destroying & breaking apart the ice packs. The highest tide is usually the second tide of the day. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine miles of Qeqertalik, is 1640.4 feet (499.99392 meters) deep. There is also somewhat of a current around Qeqertalik. This current flows to northern Greenland however it is extremely weak. There is also no riptide to the point where it would be dangerous to any swimmers. Swimming is not a common activity as it is extremely cold even in the summer months. There are not very many recreational marine activities that take place around Qeqertalik. The most popular recreational activity is to go out commercial sailing to look for marine animals. Water pollution is not very bad as most tourists don’t go to Qeqertalik & most boats do not pass through here. Most of the oceanic floor consists of mud, rock, & occasionally sand. There are hard coral reefs however those are off the coast of southern Greenland. There are no known coral reefs around Qeqertalik. However, this may change in the future. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Qeqertalik Ice Sleets Ice sheets are thick sheets of ice that are found offshore. They are usually not permanent fixtures & will often break apart after a while. This is a common place for animals to congregate & breed. A good example is walruses, as they often are seen congregating on ice sleets. These are also common places for animals to give live birth. These sleets are found on shore & are often between 1 foot & 5 feet thick. Rock Tunnels & Formations These types of ecological systems are the majority of the underwater shelter for fish or squid. These usually consist of large underwater tunnels or small rocks that are often burrowed into. These systems often function as fish nurseries, breeding grounds, hunting grounds, & living spaces for animals. Seagrass meadows are often found nearby as well. These formations are usually found between 15-300 feet (4.572 to 91.44 meters) deep. Hard Coral Reefs Hard coral reefs have been found off the coast of Cape Desolation, this makes the possibility of hard coral reefs around Qeqertalik quite high. However, this has never been proven. Individual coral stocks have been found however actual reefs have not been found around Qeqertalik. If these coral reefs were to exist they would have hard limestone exoskeletons. There is only 1 known species of cold water coral that was found at the Cape Desolation coral reef. This species was Lophelia Pertusa, also known as stone coral. This would mean that the supposed coral reefs at Qeqertalik would most likely only have stone coral. The Documented Marine Flora Of Qeqertalik There is only 1 known species of seagrass that is found around Qeqertalik. This species of seagrass is known as Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass). This seagrass grows in many places around Qeqertalik & Greenland. It also weakens the current & prevents water erosion. It prevents water erosion by not allowing the water to flow as quickly. The eelgrass acts as a sort of buffer against the ground. There are also various species of algae that bloom on glaciers & ice sleets. These are known as Ice algae. However, the actual species of these algae have yet to have been released to the public domain. These algae blooms are absolutely horrible for the environment. The reason for that is that they are rapidly speeding up the rate at which these glaciers & ice sleets melt. The algae does this by causing the glacier to need more solar energy to sustain the algae, which in turn causes the glaciers to melt. This type of algae is known as Ice algae, not Glacier Algae. Glacier algae are for surface snow environments, not sea Ice environments. It is unknown which one of these is present, or if they all are present. Other than the aforementioned examples, there are very few other marine flora species, if any. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Qeqertalik There are very few types of marine Fauna found around Qeqertalik. The few species that are found have extremely specialized features that allow them to survive. Most marine creatures who are found around here have blubber or a high-fat diet which makes them larger. This would provide them with insulation that is much needed. For the sake of this article, we will not be counting polar bears, or water birds on the list. This is due to the fact that they are not mostly or fully aquatic. There is a particularly high density of shrimp around this area. This attracts many species looking for prey, which in turn gives a high density of those species. These species are seals. There are many different species of seals around Greenland & this can be attributed to the high density of shrimp. The most prominent marine species of Qeqertalik are the following: Monodon Monoceros (Narwhal), Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whale), Orcinus Orca (Orca / Killed Whale), Phoca Hispada (Ringed seal), Phoca Groenlandica (Saddleback Seal), Phoca Vitulina, (Harbour seal), Gadus Morhua (Atlantic cod), Salmo Salar (Atlantic salmon), Salvelinus alphinus (Arctic char), Hippoglossus Hippoglossus (Atlantic Halibut), Reinhardtius Hippoglossoides (Greenland Halibut), Sebastes Marinus (Rose Fish), Pandalus Borealis (Greenland Shrimp) & finally Anarhichas Lupus (Seawolf). How The Marine Resources Of Qeqertalik Were Used & How It Affected The Oceans The most common use of the marine resources of Qeqertalik is fishing. Often people will commercial fish around Greenland for Halibut, Salmon, & Shrimp. This affects the environment by causing population depletion of the mentioned species. This also causes certain other species such as seals, to starve. Also, the creatures that the mentioned species consume or prey upon will grow in population. This may cause an environmental crisis similar to the Crown Of Thornes issue around Tutuila, American Samoa. Directories / Credits https://www.livescience.com/43116-greenland-coral-reef-discovered.html https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00524/full Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The Greenlandic Narwhal of Qeqertalik (Monodon Monoceros) This month's article series will discuss... The Greenlandic Municipality of Qeqertalik! Qeqertalik is a Municipality on the Danish island of Greenland. It is to the westernmost areas of Greenland. Greenland exists in the Arctic Ocean being a bit east of Canada. The indigenous peoples of Greenland collectively call Greenland Kalaallit Nunaat. This translates into “The land of the people”. However, that translation cannot be 100% confirmed. Qeqertalik is one of the smallest municipalities of Greenland, it is shaped rectangularly. It is an incredibly unique & diverse marine due to it being rather untouched by most humans & due to the abundance of natural resources. The municipality of Qeqertalik is 538.26 Nautical / Marine miles (619.418546 miles or 996.85752 kilometers) from mainland Canada at its closest points. Qeqertalik is also 1298.35 Nautical / Marine miles (1494.114496 miles or 2404.5442 kilometers from the continental United States. This does not include the islands of Canada, this is only the continental Canada. Greenland is usually not a place where you think of marine creatures, however, it has a peculiar assortment of marine animals. One of the most prominent marine animals of Qeqertalik is known as the Narwhal. Believed to be a hoax at first, this creature is rather strange. The narwhal is particularly famous & distinguished due to its large protruding horn that pokes out from the middle of the narwhal's face. This large horn is the narwhal's left canine, much like a walrus tusk. This strange horn will be discussed thoroughly throughout the article. However the horn of the narwhal is not the only strange thing about it, the narwhal has a long history & took to even be recognized as a real species. Due to this & for several other reasons, this animal is arguably one of the most famous animals of the Arctic Ocean. The narwhal while found in other areas, is found in the highest density on the western coast of Greenland. In this article, we will discuss the life of the Greenlandic Narwhal, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the Greenlandic Narwhal, the distribution of the Greenlandic Narwhal & finally the scientific detailings of the Greenlandic Narwhal. With that being said, let us delve into this mysterious & mythical creature. The Life Of The Narwhal The Narwhal was discovered in 1577 by the English explorer known as Martin Frobisher. He found it while on an expedition around Northern Canada. It was originally thought to be a sea unicorn. It was first described as a species in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus, a great taxonomist. It was described in his publication “Systema Naturae”. The narwhal may grow up to be approximately 17 feet (5.1816 meters) in length, this includes the tusk. The large protruding canine grows to be on average 7.55 feet (2.30124 feet). The canine is cylindrical & has a pointed end. It is important to note that the majority of females do not have a tusk, while the majority of males do. Occasionally a male can be seen with 2 tusks. A full-grown narwhal will weigh between 2,100 pounds (952.544 kilograms) & 4,200 pounds (1905.088 kilograms). The males tend to be heavier than the females on average. The narwhal will live to be at least 25 years of age, however, the oldest narwhal on record lived to be 50 years of age. Narwhals are incredibly smart creatures as they are similar to dolphins. Their brains are also the same size as the human brain when relative to body mass. They are able to use skills & teach hunting techniques to other narwhals. Narwhals are not just able to mirror other narwhals' behaviors, they have learned how to mirror other species' behaviors. They are also able to synchronize attacks. Little is known about their emotional capacity, however in other studies with their close relatives known as dolphins, the dolphins can be seen going through grief cycles & feeling loss. Narwhals are social creatures who live in groups of 10-20 individual narwhals. They do not often appear by themselves. They are not aggressive towards humans & not aggressive towards each other, they are aggressive to fish species but that is due to the narwhal wanting to consume the fish. They also generally avoid interaction with humans. There is no evidence to suggest that Narwhals are territorial, they seem to migrate fairly often & prefer to not stay in one place. They are primarily hunted by polar bears & Orcas. However a Greenland shark has been found with the remains of a Narwhal in its stomach, it remains unclear if the narwhal was hunted purposefully or if the shark stole the narwhal from another species. The narwhals' diet largely consists of fish such as cod & halibut. However occasionally they can be seen consuming squid & shrimp. They are not cannibalistic in any capacity. The narwhal can consume up to 66 pounds (29.9371 kilograms) of food per day. They more often consume 20-25 pounds (9.07185 to 11.3398 kilograms) per day. They do not have a particularly elevated metabolism so that is not the reason for their high appetite. They do not have a particular time in which they hunt. They hunt by stabbing the fish with the canine & then consuming the fish. They can swim at up to 4.03891 miles per hour (6.499995575 kilometers per hour), which helps them catch fish with immense ease. They have a pair of short flippers that help them swim & turn in the water & their rear flukes assist with propelling them forward. The narwhal is a chunky, stocky whale with a small rounded head. They have short flippers towards the front of them & they do not have a flexible neck. Narwhals have a grey to grey-blue coloration at birth. However, throughout the narwhal's life, the narwhal will turn a light grey, when the narwhal grows very old the narwhal may look completely white. The narwhals sleep by going on the ice or halfway onto the ice to make sure they don’t drown while they sleep, & then cuddling for warmth. They do have eyelids so when the narwhal is sleeping the narwhal will close its eyes. The Mating Tactics, Practices, Procedures, & Cycles Of The Narwhal Narwhals mate via sexual reproduction. They are not hermaphroditic & cannot change sexes. However, like most mammals, some Narwhals might be born intersex. They do appear to be monogamous & they do seem to mate for life. The males will sexually mature between the ages of 8 & 10 years. The females will sexually mature between 4 to 8 years of age. The females are most fertile years before the age of 20. After that females will not have the same ease of having a calf. after They do appear to have a particular mating season, this season lasts from the middle of April through the beginning of March. Little is known about the actual mating ritual, however it is known that they mate belly to belly. Also, an attribute that will help the males find a female is the size of their horn. Scientists believe that females will prefer a narwhal that has a larger horn. This is most likely due to females just preferring larger males which usually means that the males' horns will be larger than others. They most likely mate via internal fertilization, however this remains unconfirmed. They often will mate on pack ice off shore or in the water which makes observation of their mating habits difficult. Their gestation period lasts from 13 months to 16 months, the calf will then be born in the summer of the following year. They will have children every 3 years or so. The female will only ever have a singular calf, having twin calves is incredibly rare but not impossible. This is due to the size of the calves. After the calf is born the father will not be a part of the baby's life. The calf will nurse from the mother for approximately 1 year & 6 months before leaving to hunt on its own. During the 18 month period, the baby will be taught how to hunt & will learn how to eat solid foods. It is unclear as to when exactly the baby will start eating solid foods. The mother will stop lactating afterward. The calf will then go off to join a pod on its own. The Geographical Distribution Of The Narwhal The narwhal usually sticks to the Arctic Ocean. Contrary to popular belief the narwhal is not found near Antarctica. The narwhal is found throughout northern areas of Canada such as Nunavut, it is also found throughout Greenland, Alaska & various western parts of Russia. They are also believed to be found somewhat north of the Norwegian archipelago of Spitsbergen, however, this has yet to be confirmed. The narwhal is usually found approximately 200 miles (321.869 kilometers) from shore & does not often come close to the coast. They may dive to depths over 4,500 feet (1371.6 meters) multiple times a month, which makes it incredibly hard to track them. There are approximately 80,000 narwhals left on planet Earth & we do not know everywhere narwhals are found. The not any known subspecies of the narwhal, however, this may change. The Scientific Detailings Of The Narwhal The Narwhal is a special creature for many reasons, however the most notable of those is the giant horn that it has. This horn is a canine, it is made of ivory & it looks sort of like a spiral. It is important to note that the canine is lodged in the jaw & the base of the canine is covered in flesh. Mostly only males have this horn, however, some females are documented to have it. It is significantly rarer to find a female with a horn. The males will sometimes have 2 horns or canines sticking out. This is rare, as only 1 in every 500 males will grow to have 2 horns. Only 1 female has ever been documented to have 2 horns. Through the years the horn will grow like a tree, with its rings growing up. Another remarkable thing is the brain-to-body mass ratio. It is about the same as humans which begs a lot of questions as to the intelligence of Narwhals. However incredibly little is known about them due to their geographical placement throughout the world. Learning more about the narwhal is not a large priority so most likely this will remain for many decades to come. The narwhal does not have any other teeth other than the large canine. It is not known how they consume without grinding it. They will most likely swallow the prey whole after stunning it with the horn. However, this is only a theory & has not been confirmed. Their bone structure is quite similar to a beluga whale. It is quite short, stout, & cylindrical. They are vertebrates & mammals as they lactate. Narwhals as a species have existed for approximately 1 million years. It is unknown what warranted this evolutionary trait. It was most likely a small original population & this was a gene that kept on being bred back into the species. This would cause more narwhals to keep picking up this trait until it existed in every narwhal & then so on & so forth. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity for fur or hair, & three middle ear bones.  There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Artiodactyla. which are even-toed ungulates. Species categorized under Artiodactyla are ungulates, hoofed animals which bear weight equally on two of their five toes, these toes are the third & fourth toes. The other three toes are either present, absent, vestigial, or pointing posteriorly. Their infraorder is that of Cetacea. Key characteristics of this infraorder are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size & exclusively carnivorous diet. Another characteristic is their incredible social intelligence. There are roughly 90 species categorized under Cetacea. Their family is Monodontidae. This is a cetacean family that only comprises 2 living species, those species being the Beluga whale & the Narwhal. These 2 creatures are incredibly genetically similar. Their genus is Monodon. Monodon is a genus that contains only 1 species, this species is the narwhal. This creatures Binomial name is Monodon Monoceros. The Fight To Recognize The Narwhal As A True Species That Was Not Mythical The narwhal was not originally recognized as a real species, it was seen as an actual unicorn. This was when it was first discovered in 1557. This caused a delay in studying the creature due to the animal being killed off for the horn. It was believed that the horn had magical properties which prompted the mass hunt of the narwhal in the first place. This leads to modern day society in which a shocking amount of the population still believes that the narwhal is a mythical creature. By taxonomy, however, the narwhal is recognized as an actual species & not some mythical entity. Directories / Credits https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/the-mystery-of-the-sea-unicorn https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/species-guide/narwhal/ https://animalia.bio/narwhal https://nammco.no/narwhal/#1475762140566-81d47f7a-a145 Narwhal - Oceana https://www.whalefacts.org/narwhal-facts/ https://animals.mom.com/mating-habits-narwhals-11473.html https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/size-matters-narwhals-long-tusks-help-them-find-a-mate/amp/ https://a-z-animals.com/blog/narwhal-skull-how-its-massive-tusk-connects/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of The North Sea   This article is the ninth installment in the Ode To Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, we will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map up for analysis is an antique chart of the North Sea.   The Map Itself   Since this map is in English, there is no need for translation.  An Analysis Of The Map This map was made originally in 1840, but it was later corrected in 1843. It was made by M. Blachford, & was sold originally by Blachford & Imray. Maps Of Antiquity is currently selling this map. This map was most certainly made in England. The map encompasses the North Sea, also known as the German Sea. The map is positioned in such a way that the coasts of the Netherlands, Denmark, France, Norway, England, Scotland, & the Shetland Islands coastal areas are all visible. This is a sailing map, so there are no reasons for any marine creature zones to be labeled. Since the map has many overlapping lines on the sea area, it is hard to tell whether any islands were left off or not. For this reason, we cannot properly assess the accuracy of this map. This map is most likely in a large collection of European maps by Blachford & Co., but we cannot tell if it is, we can only hypothesize. The map has no weather or tidal patterns displayed on the map either, due to technology at the time not being very reliable at tracking these sorts of things. There are no prominent terrestrial topographical features on the map. This map is uncolored, most likely for simplicity. This map was not made for militia use, & was most likely never used for militaristic purposes. Aside from the northern sea, the map does not Center end on any lighthouse or country in particular. Additionally, no coves are labeled on the map. There are no rapids or dangerous areas labeled directly on the map, for unknown reasons. Due to the time & location of the map making, it was most certainly made using lithography. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterward, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed.   Directories / Credits   All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them.   Strategic Partnerships   Reel Guppy Outdoors   Our Loyal Patrons  Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Marine Hall Of Distinction: Doctor Malcolm Roy Clarke This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Malcolm Roy Clarke. Malcolm Roy Clarke is a British Malacologist, Marine Biologist, & Teuthologist. Born on October 24th, 1930, He began his career as a whale inspector for the British Navy. During this time he worked aboard ships in the Antarctic. He is most well known for his research on cephalopods, & sperm whales. He is known to have been one of the first scientists to extract squid beaks from whale carcasses, in order to study them. For the majority of the 1900s as well as part of the 2000s, he was considered to be the world's foremost expert on cephalopods, & their ecology. He is considered to be one of the founders of Cephalopod International. Dr. Clarke is regarded as one of the greatest cephalopod ecologists, recognized for his dedication & contributions. For all of his work across the fields of general marine biology, malacology, & teuthology, he was awarded a fellowship of the Royal Society. In this article, we will discuss the Early Life & Education of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke, The Career & Later Life Of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke, & The Awards, Honourables, Accomplishments, & Achievements of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke. With that being said, let us delve into this Arctic malacologist. The Early Life & Education Of Malcolm Roy Clarke Malcolm Roy Clarke was born on October 24th, 1930. He was born in Birmingham, located in the western midlands region of England. Unfortunately, absolutely nothing is known about his childhood or his parents. The Later Life & Career Of Malcolm Roy Clarke Malcolm Roy Clarke began his career as a Whale Inspector for the Royal British Navy. During his time as a Whale Inspector, he worked aboard ships in the Antarctic region. This sparked a keen interest in cetaceans, leading him to write his Ph.D. thesis on whale parasites. While working on his thesis, he realized how much information could be recovered from squid beaks if he extracted them from whales. He would go on to extract this information, & while doing so, he would innovate new sampling techniques, & different methods of testing. This would help other naturalists discover a trove of information concerning other animals. Across all available records, it is unclear which year he got his P.hd. It is also unclear whether this was before or after his marriage. In 1953, Dr. Clarke married his wife, Dorothy Clara Knight. They would go on to have a happy marriage, & have 4 children. After he finished his whale inspecting business, he decided to begin working at the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences. He worked at this institution from 1958 to 1972. In that year, he decided to switch to working at the Marine Biological Association Of The United Kingdom. Despite officially retiring in 1981, he would stay with the association until 1987. During his time at the association around 1978, he was awarded a doctorate of science.  Soon after in 1981, he was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society. He retired in the year 1981, & purchased a secondary residence in on Pico Island, Portugal. Even though he was retired, his interest in cephalopods did not wane in the slightest. He continued to study various species of squid, as well as examine specimens up close. Astonishingly, He & his wife would open a private sperm whale museum on the island in 2003. This museum is still open, & is thriving. Unfortunately, he passed away on May 10th, 2013, in his second residence on Pico Island. His dedication, & contributions to science will not be forgotten. The Awards, Achievements, Accomplishments, & Honorable Of Malcolm Roy Clarke He had a deep sea anglerfish officially named after him. The species of anglerfish is Oneirodes Clarkei. He authored over 150 scientific articles that were published across a wide array of journals. He was awarded the Fellowship of the Royal Society. He innovated multiple techniques for experimentation that would help other naturalists discover heaps of new information. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Dedication: Malcolm Clarke, his life & work”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Elsevier. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://cephalopod.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/clarke_obituary.pdf Citation No. 2: “Malcolm Roy Clarke. 24 October 1930 — 10 May 2013”, Written by Peter J. Herring, & Published on the 1st of December, 2014. Published By Royal Society Publishing. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.2014.0011 Citation No. 3: “The role of Malcolm Clarke (1930–2013) in the Azores as a scientist & educationist” ", Written By J.N Gomes-Pereira, R. Prieto, V. Neves, J. Xavier, C. Pham, J. Gonçalves, F. Porteiro, R. Santos, & H. Martins, & Published On July 8th, 2014. Published By the Cambridge University Press. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-marine-biological-association-of-the-united-kingdom/article/role-of-malcolm-clarke-19302013-in-the-azores-as-a-scientist-and-educationist/5FCB2DD90B11F4EA51D66861A646B79D Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Terre-De-Bas, Guadeloupe This month's article series will discuss... the French isle of Terre-de-Bas. Terre de bas translates from French into English into the words bottomland, lowland, or downland. This is most likely due to the shallow elevation of the island. This island is a part of the tiny archipelago of the Terre Islands. These islands may also be known as the Petite Terre Islands due to their small size, these 2 islands have a combined total land mass of 0.71815 square miles (1.859999961 square kilometer). The Terre Islands directly translated from French into English as the Earth islands or the Land islands. However, the name was possibly not meant to be translated. This island itself as well as the Terre Island Group is a part of the Lesser Antilles & is a part of the municipality of Guadeloupe. Guadeloupe is owned by France as of 2024. A good way to see Guadeloupe on a map is to look for the archipelago that is vaguely shaped like a butterfly. This Island is in the Atlantic Ocean. The island also is a part of the Caribbean Sea. It exists in the Caribbean, being approximately 305.90 Nautical / Marine miles from Venezuela. It is also 1221.59 Nautical / Marine miles from Florida, which is a state of the United States. Terre de bas is so minuscule that is often not featured on maps & nautical maps of it are very scarce. The island is extremely biodiverse as it is very untouched by most humans so its natural environment is healthy. It has many nutrients & marine creatures that surround the island. One of the best examples of these intelligent & unique species is the West Indian Manatee. The previous article to this talks completely & solely about the West Indian manatee & its placement in the marine environment of Terre-De-Bas. The flora of these marine ecosystems is also especially unique. The majority of Terre-De-Bas’s coastal areas have been untouched & left alone by the few locals on the island. The marine ecosystems that are in need of maintenance are receiving it  & many conservation efforts have been made to protect & ensure the complete safety of the marine wildlife. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature,  marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the petite & peaceful island of Terre-De-Bas The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Basic Information The salinity of the island has not been measured & released to the public domain. Since the island is in the Atlantic, it will most likely have a higher salinity than say the Pacific Ocean or the Indian Ocean. Salt deposits / Brine Pools may be more common around the island due to the higher salinity. However, the existence of brine pools around the island has not been proven. The salinity levels of the Atlantic Ocean at any given time are between 35.5 & 34.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no ongoing factors that would lead to the salinity level being altered. The oceanic temperatures around the island can be found on a plethora of websites however the easiest to navigate & the most accurate ones are https://www.seatemperature.org , https://seatemperature.net , https://weather-and-climate.com , & https://seatemperature.info . The tidal chart can also be found on the majority of these websites as well. The tides usually never get over 1.5 meters tall (4.92126 feet) due to the strange placement of Terre-de-bas. The surf is never usually dangerously high.  The riptide also usually never becomes dangerously prominent to the point where it makes swimming a safety hazard. Currents around the island are not randomly forming & the majority of the existing currents do not go closely to the coastal areas. Swimming & scuba diving are incredibly common recreational activities that take place on Terre-de-bas. There is not very polluted water around the island as can be seen by the thriving wildlife & clear water. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine miles is 5,291.3 feet (1612.78824 meters or 1.61278824 kilometers) deep. The majority of the marine geographic terrain is composed of coral, mud, sand, & rock. Oceanic mounds are not very common around the island. There are no volcanoes that are oceanic in nature that exist in Guadeloupean waters. The closest oceanic volcano is Kick ‘em Jenny which is just north of the Country of Grenada, as well as the Grenadines. There are a total of 47 designated marine protected areas in Guadeloupe as of 2024. Only 1 of which is extremely highly protected & holds much higher penalties for destruction of the area than the 46 other marine protected areas. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Terre-De-Bas Coral Reefed Areas Coral reefed areas are usually located around close coastal areas. They can often be seen from the beaches & the piers of Terre-De-Bas. They are often located within 2,000 feet or less of the coast. All coral reefs found around Terre-De-Bas are fringing type rather than Barrier. It is unknown all the coral species around Terre-De-Bas. Unfortunately, the majority of these coral reefs are in horrible conditions. This is due to rising salinity levels, high sedimentation, & an overload of nutrients in the coastal waters which stems from excessive use of fertilizer. Guadeloupe does however have a barrier reef, just in the northern end of the archipelago which is not where Terre-De-Bas exists. Seagrass Bedded Areas There is no specific place where these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually, smaller animals are found here, which makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses give birth. It consists mostly of seagrass. It also works as the fish nursery for majority of the fish. The main species of seagrasses around Guadeloupe are Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass),& Syringodium filiform (filament grass). Turtle grass is more prominent & is found as deep as 10 meters (32.8084 feet). Filiment grass, however, makes up the majority of the deeper seagrass meadows. Syringodium Filiform is found as deep as 30 meters (98.4252 feet), this seagrass is usually found further off the coast rather than the other species. Seagrass meadows are also usually found near mangrove forests or are found embellishing coral reefs. Mangrove Forests Mangrove forests are areas where the trees & the ocean connect. This creates a unique ecosystem in which there is shallow brackish water, & lots of roots. The tree roots make a sort of underwater labyrinth for the fish & other creatures to enjoy. Mangrove forests are usually found further inland than mangrove coasts. The ocean usually runs off into these areas. Mangrove forests are especially unique because they have excessive nutrients. This is due to the meeting of the forest organisms & the oceanic organisms. The exact species of these mangrove trees have currently not been released to the public domain. Mangrove Coasts Mangrove coasts are extremely similar to mangrove forests. However, instead of the ocean running off into the mangrove forests, with mangrove coasts the mangrove trees grow directly along the coast. This provides unique shelter for all oceanic species. The mangrove tree species here are the most likely same here are they are in the mangrove forests—however these areas are at extreme threat levels due to the rising oceans. The Documented Marine Flora of Terre-De-Bas There are currently 2 seagrass species known to exist around Terre-De-Bas. These species have been stated in the subsections above. These species are known as Thalassia Testudinum (Turtle grass), & Syringodium Filiform (Filament grass). These grasses are not endemic to Terre-De-Bas & are found throughout the Lesser Antilles. These seagrasses are found in the highest density around the northern most facing side of the island. However, seagrasses aren’t the islands only marine Flora. Many different types of algae surround the island as well. The most prominent type of algae is brown algae, specifically from the genus Sargassum. It is well known for growing around all Caribbean islands & frequently washing up along these isles' shorelines. Sargassum is a a genus that contains most brown macroalgae species. It is unknown the exact amount of brown algae species that occupy Terre-De-Bas. The Documented Marine Fauna of Terre-De-Bas In marine fauna ,Terre-De-Bas is extremely diverse. This is due to the diversity of ecosystems which provide shelter as well as food & large amounts of nutrients. However, there are other contributing factors as to the biodiversity of Terre-De-Bas. Most often creatures will migrate up the lesser Antilles toyear-round find more prey, this makes it so that most creatures will not live year round around Terre-De-Bas. However biodiversity is slowly declining due to the increasing sea levels, decreasing amounts of coral, & mismanagement of wastewater. The best places to see these marine creatures that we speak of are in the areas with coral reefs. The reason for that is due to the majority of the creatures hunting in the coral reefs or living in the coral reefs. There are no known marine species that are endemic specifically to the island of Terre-De-Bas. However, there are some marine endemic species in Guadeloupe. The majority of coral reefs are tino the northern areas of the island. For this article, we will not be counting smaller organisms, or organisms that are in low density around the island. The most prominent marine species that are found around Terre-De-Bas are as follows: Trichechus Manatus (The West Indian manatee), Balaenoptera Acutorostrata (Northern Minke Whale), Balaenoptera Borealis (Sei Whale), Balaenoptera Brydei (Bryde’s whale), Balaenoptera Musculus (Blue Whale), Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whale), Short-Beaked Common Dolphin (Delphinus Delphis), Fersea Attenuata (Pygmy Killer Whale), Globicephala Macrorhyncus (Short-finned pilot whale), Lagenodelphis Hosei (Frasers Dolphin), Grampus Griseus (Risso’s Dolphin), Orcinus Orca (Killer Whale), Peponocephala Electra (Melon-Headed Whale), Pseudorca Crassidens (False Killer Whale), Stenella Attenuata (Pantropical Spotted Dolphin), Stenella Clymene (Clymene Dolphin), Stenella Coeruleoalba (Striped Dolphin), Stenella Longirostris (Spinners Dolphin), Stenella Frontalis (Atlantic Spotted Dolphin), Steno Bredanensis (Rough-Toothed Dolphin), Tursiops Truncatus (Common Bottlenose Dolphin), Physeter Catodon (Sperm Whale), Kogia Breviceps (Pygmy sperm whale), Kogia Sima (Dwarf Sperm Whale), Mesoplodon Europaeus (Gervais’s Beaked Whale), Ziphius Cavirostris (Cuivers Beaked Whale), Sphyraena Barracuda (Great Barracuda), Chelonia Mydas (Green Sea Turtle), Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle), & Finally, Albula Vulpes (Bonefish). How The Marine Resources Of Terre-De-Bas Were Utilized & How It Affected The Marine Environment The marine resources of Terre-De-Bas were most often utilized by commercial fishing & fishing for personal uses. Many edible fish are found around Terre-De-Bas which is what attracts the amount of fishermen. This for obvious reasons, causes the marine species to become less prominent in that area, which will cause many issues. A good example of this was when most of the fish that ate the Crown of Thorns starfish around Tutuila were hunted into local extinction, this then caused the population of the Crown Of Thorns to spike. The Crown Of Thorns then went about eating all the coral which caused a large environmental crisis. Another common use is for eco-tourism which is tourism for the specific purpose of visiting the natural environment. However, this eco-tourism can be unethical at times & lead to pollution & destruction of the natural marine environment. Thankfully, most of the marine resources of Terre-De-Bas have been left alone. This gives Terre-De-Bas the ability to support the mass amount of marine animals that it has today. Directories / Credits https://mpatlas.org/countries/GLP https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285934691_Recent_evolution_of_the_coral_reefs_of_Guadeloupe_and_Saint-_Barthelemy_Islands https://www.cayoli.fr/en/environment/seagrass-meadow/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication_262840512_First_assessment_of_the_diversity_of_coralline_species_forming_maerl_and_rhodoliths_in_Guadeloupe_Caribbean_using_an_integrative_systematic_approach https://www.shelltonewhaleproject.org/en/dauphins-et-baleines-en-guadeloupe/ https://www.atlantisformation-guadeloupe.com/en/m/Discover-the-Cousteau-Marine-Park-its-wildlife-and-outstanding-marine-life_a8.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The West Indian Manatee Of Terre-de-Bas, Guadeloupe (Trichechus Manatus) This month's article series will discuss... the French isle of Terre-de-Bas. Terre de bas translates from French into English into the words bottomland, lowland, or downland. This is most likely due to the very low elevation of the island. This island is a part of the tiny archipelago of the Terre Islands. The Terre Island directly translates from French into English as the Earth islands or the Land islands. However, the name was possibly not meant to be translated. This island is a part of the lesser Antilles & is a part of the municipality of Guadeloupe. Guadeloupe is owned by France as of 2024. This island is in the Atlantic Ocean. It exists in the Caribbean, being approximately 305.90 Nautical / Marine miles from Venezuela. It is also 1221.59 Nautical / Marine miles from Florida, which is a state of the United States. Terre de bas is so small that is often not featured on maps & nautical maps of it are very scarce. The island is extremely biodiverse as it is very untouched by most humans so its natural environment is healthy. It has many nutrients & marine creatures that surround the island. However, this article is not to talk about the island itself but to speak about one of the most important marine creatures in the sea around it. That creature is the marine organism known as the West Indian Manatee. This animal lives around Guadeloupe & often consumes aquatic plants. They are very closely related to dugongs & this species has multiple subspecies. These manatees are friendly & seem to be curious of humans, their curiosity towards humans leads them to occasionally approach humans in the waters. They are completely harmless & are unable to even consume meat so there is no issue of them attacking someone on purpose even if provoked. They will more often just move out of the way instead of reacting violently. They also swim in a way in which their head may poke out of the water. They do not have gills, & are mammals instead. They breathe air & only breathe through their nostrils. The manatee is a social & somewhat affectionate creature, they are also incredibly gentle towards humans. However, they are still wild so avoid contact with the manatee even if it swims up to you. Being quite lazy creatures, they often can be seen lounging around the water or occasionally consuming the marine flora that they come across. They are herbivorous in diet. Additionally, the reason that they are called West Indian manatees is because they are found throughout the western Indies, they are not found anywhere around India or Asia for that matter. In this article, we will discuss the life of the West Indian Manatee, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the West Indian Manatee, the distribution of the West Indian Manatee, & finally the scientific detailings of the West Indian Manatee. With that being said, let us delve into this loveable & lazy creature.  The Life Of The Indian West Manatee The West Indian manatee was first described by Carl Linnaeus. It was described in 1758 in the book known as the 10th edition of Systema Naturae. It is not said how or where this animal was first found however it can be assumed that it was spotted in the Caribbean or off the coast of Brazil. The largest West Indian manatee grew to be 15 feet (4.572 meters) long, However, it is rare that a manatee gets this long, it is more likely that they will only grow up to 10.5 feet (3.2004 meters) long. The adult female manatees tend to be larger than then the male manatees on average. The females also tend to be heavier than the males in order to support the females while they are pregnant. They often weigh between 990 pounds (449.056 kilograms) & 3,500 pounds (1587.573 kilograms). This is much less compared to their larger ancestor the Steller sea cow. They live approximately 40 years on average in the wild. However the oldest individual was snooty, who lived to be 68 years old. A manatee's level of intellect is incredibly hard to measure because we cannot exactly test them. They have incredible sensory abilities & have hairs all over their body that they use to feel water ripples in the water around them. These hairs are known as vibrissae. They are able to feel emotions & feel love for each other. They all have unique personalities just like humans, they aren’t too far off from us in social & emotional structure. They are able to communicate these emotions by squeaks & vocalizations. They also have advanced long-term memory & can remember as well as recognize humans whom they have formed bonds with. They also can prefer certain humans over others. It is not exactly clear how long this species, in particular, has existed, however, manatees as a whole have existed for approximately 50 million years. Manatees are not territorial & will live in pairs in certain areas of coastal waters. They swim by moving their tails in an up & down motion in order to propel themselves. They may swim at 5 miles per hour while swimming in this way, however, there is another way that they swim. They may do the same motion but instead on quicker bursts, this will get them at speeds up to 15 miles per hour. When they are resting they look as if they are standing straight up on their tails. They rest for up to 12 hours a day & do sleep. They are herbivores & will only consume aquatic flora. They are not cannibalistic in any form. They will eat whenever they feel like it & do not have feeding cycles. They have no natural predators due to the fact that they are incredibly long & that they have so much blubber that they physically cannot be eaten. They use their flexible frontal limbs in order to hold vegetation while they consume it. They also use these limbs to steer around water. They are most often gray in color but can range from black to light brown. Their skin is wrinkled & covered sparsely with vibrissae are sometimes spotted with algae or even barnacles. They have large, heavy, rounded & oval-shaped bodies with paired flippers & a round paddle-shaped tail. The Mating Practices, Procedures, Tactics & Cycles Of The West Indian Manatee West Indian manatees mate via sexual reproduction. They are not monogamous & will mate with a new male or female every season. They do appear to have a particular mating season, this season being from March to November. However, mating is a year-round activity. The female manatees will reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years old. The males may reach maturity as late as 7 years old. They are not hermaphroditic & are unable to change sexes. It is currently unclear as to whether calves are able to be born intersex or not. The females are most fertile at 7-20 years old. The females will reproduce every 2-5 years & will usually only reproduce 1 single calf. Having twins is incredibly rare & dangerous for the mother. The approximate gestation period of a West Indian manatee is 11-12 months. The baby will be born underwater. The calf will stay with the mother for 2 years, during this time the calf will drink milk from its mother. West Indian manatees are able to lactate. The area from which the milk comes out is the nipple which is located just behind the forelimb of the mother. When the mother is ready to mate she will attract the males & form mating herds. The females will also exhibit searching behaviors. These main behavior is dispersing anal gland mucus onto logs or various other objects in order to attract males to her. As many as 20 males will follow the females in the mating herd. They will push & shove each other in order to have a higher chance of mating with the female. They will mate via internal fertilization. This means that the male will use his penis to eject the semen into the female. There are also certain areas where manatees will go specifically when looking for a mate.  The Distribution Of The West Indian Manatee The West Indian manatee is found all throughout the Caribbean. It has been found especially high density throughout the Gulf of Mexico. It is found as far south as northern Brazil & as far north as the US state of Virginia. They prefer warmer water most likely due to there being a higher quantity of algae & seaweed in tropical areas. It is not found on the western side of the Panama Canal. This species does have multiple subspecies however it is not often found in one of the species' primary areas. These subspecies are Trichechus Manatus Manatus (Antillean manatee) & Trichechus Manatus Latirostros. There are no other subspecies of Trichechus Manatus as of 2024. However, this may change.  The Scientific Detailings Of The West Indian Manatee  Manatees are interesting for many reasons, but especially because they only eat aquatic plants yet they grow to about the size of a horse or a dwarf cattle. The reason that they can eat only aquatic flora & still be absurdly large for this is because they have incredibly low bodily fat. The majority of the space in their body is taken up by organs. They do not need very much insulation because they are in a tropical area. This means that they are already warm enough therefore they do not need much protection from the cold. It is scientifically proven that The output of the heat from the food digesting in their body helps manatees avoid being as cold & as affected by the cold in the winter. In conclusion, manatees are not fat at all they just have extremely large organs. This means theoretically by restricting the size of the organs on a manatee that the manatee will be smaller. Even though they are incredibly large they can somersault about the water & go onto land every now & then. They are then able to slip back into the water with ease. They are incredibly agile creatures. This species is classified as Vulnerable under the IUCN red list. A manatee's teeth are short, stubby, blunt, & rounded. This is due to their herbivorous appetite & diet. These teeth are used to grind the plants enough to the point where they are able to swallow it. The teeth are also further toward the back of the jaw as opposed to humans. With age, the individual tooth will also grow 2 notches in it. This will cause the tooth to flatten over time. A manatee will have between 24 & 32 teeth, however, it is usually closer to 28 teeth than 32.  The image above depicts the bodily system of a manatee. As can be seen, they do have individual bones for fingers. This is a remanent of their ancestors, these ancestors would also evolve into elephants. Their leg bones have long disappeared however the arms have not yet become an evolutionary thing of the past. These fingers in their arm-like limbs help them move water about, hold food in place, & many other things. They are extremely flexible, they are somewhat akin to human arms. They also have fingernails which are visible on the outside of the body. They have incredibly short & stubby snouts as well. Remanent bones such as the hyoid bones located near the neck region, are still found in the manatee to this day. These bones are similar to the Adam's apple which is seen in male humans. Researchers have concluded that there is no known use of these bones in the manatee. The manatee has pelvic bones, but they are not attached to its main skeletal frame & are fairly small compared to the rest of the manatee’s skeletal proportions. These pelvic bones are remnants of a time when manatees manatees' ancestors lived on land. The bones are found in a cartilage tissue area of the body in the vicinity of the reproductive organs and the urinary bladder. These bones are soft when the manatee is a juvenile & later harden as they mature, much like knee caps in human juveniles. This is not able to be seen, however, their lungs are approximately 1 meter long, 20 centimeters wide & less than 5 centimeters thick. Their large lungs help them to control their buoyancy. Unlike the majority of mammals, manatees' lungs lay along the spinal cord rather than being inside the ribcage. Manatees do not have external eyelids or eyelashes. Their eye muscles close in a circular motion, akin to an aperture on a camera. Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity for fur or hair, & three middle ear bones. There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Sirenia. This is an order that holds the majority of all manatees & dugongs as they are closely related. A defining characteristic of this order is the fact that they are all fully herbivorous & they all grow to be incredibly large. Their family is Trichechidae. All surviving species in this family are classified as manatees. There are several extinct genera classified under this family however they do not count for the purpose of this. There are currently 8 species under this family. Their genus is Trichechus. All species classified under this genus are manatees. This genus holds all surviving species of manatees as of 2024. There are currently 5 species classified under this family at this time, However 1 of those species is questionable as to whether it classifies as its species or not. This species Binomial name is Trichechus Manatus. This species has 2 subspecies known as Trichechus Manatus Manatus & Trichechus Manatus Latriostros.  Directories / Credits https://oceana.org/blog/what-you-didnt-know-about-manatees-honor-manatee-awareness-month/ https://myfwc.com/education/wildlife/manatee/facts-and-information/ https:// swimmingwiththemanatees.com/life-expectancy-of-manatee/ https://www.manatee-world.com/manatee-social-structure/ https://www.bioexpedition.com/manatee-communication/ https://riverventures.com/blog/2022/11/5/manatee-qampa-are-manatees-friendly-to-humans?format=amp https://research.ufl.edu/publications/explore/v07n2/manatees.html https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Mammals/West-Indian-Manatee https://nhpbs.org/natureworks/manatee.htm#6 https://animalcorner.org/animals/west-indian-manatee/ https://www.livescience.com/53164-animal-sex-manatees.html http://savethemanatee-archive.org/faq_body_fat.html https://myfwc.com/education/wildlife/manatee/facts-and-information/ Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ocho

The Documented History & Modern Economic State Of Tutuila, American Samoa In today’s article we will be discussing the long & complicated history behind the American Samoan island of Tutuila. Tutuila is the largest island & the island with the capital in the archipelago of American Samoa. Tutuila is the largest & capital island in the archipelago known as American Samoa. This island is a territory of the United States Of America. It is in the middle of Oceania. It exists as part of the Samoan islands in the central Pacific Ocean. It is incredibly far from the closest continent that is considered mainland. It stands at 17,439.11 nautical miles from the continent of Australia. It is 15,939.46 miles from the country of China. It is also 7,830.43 Nautical miles from Antarctica. This island has changed many hands throughout its history. It is extremely biodiverse & attracts animals from most corners of Polynesia, this is often seen throughout its history. This was also a reason for conflicts between the natives & others. The island itself was formed during the early Pliocene age. This places it at between 5.4 million & 3.4 million years ago. It was formed by a volcanic eruption, it is not clear if this eruption also formed the surrounding islands or not. Its largest settlement is known as Pago Pago, it is the capital of American Samoa. During its last census it had 11,500 people, or 20.581287135801% of the total population on the island. The total population of the island in its last census in 2000 registered as 55,876 people. Its highest elevation is Matafao peak, standing at a mere 653 meters (2142.39 feet). The island is a popular sight for hiking, recreational swimming, surfing, fishing, scuba diving, & snorkelling. These all contribute to the industry of Eco-tourism. The reason for the majority of its scuba diving is due to the beautiful shallow coral reefs off of the coast. Sunken world war 2 relics can also be found off the coast, this is a contributing factor to the large scuba diving / snorkelling industry. These coral reefs are found all around the island. The island also has mountainous regions, which is what makes hiking popular. The oceans surrounding Tutuila are of importance to the legends of the island. These legends will be discussed later in the article. The island is divided into 2 administrative districts, the western & the eastern. The eastern area has 5 counties & so does the western. Even though there are multiple counties, American Samoa has only 1 zip-code, that zip-code is 96799. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Tutuila as a whole, The known aboriginals of Tutuila, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Tutuila, & finally a segment on the American Samoan economy. With that being said, let us delve into the island of Tutuila. The Documented History Of Tutuila Before Colonization Before Colonization by the Europeans, the Polynesians occupied Tutuila along with the rest of Samoa. The Polynesians most likely arrived in 1000 B.C. However it may have been as late as 800 B.C. None the less, By 600 B.C they established a village at the modern day area of Tula. Tula is on the eastern side of Tutuila. There is much evidence to believe that after this point Polynesians still came in & out. The reason for this hypothesis is because the Polynesians on Tutuila managed to keep in contact with the majority of the neighbouring islands. After this point, Tutuila served as a place of exile for the warriors & the chiefs who had been defeated in the wars that ravaged much of Upolu for centuries. It also served as a place for Political Prisoners. Namely Upolu rulers & warriors. After this point unfortunately not much is known about Polynesian activity on the island. However it is believed that this was the first inhabited island of Samoa & from Tutuila they spread to the other samoan islands. After Colonization 18th Century In the year of 1722 Jacob Roggeveen a dutch explorer, visited the island chain that contains Tutuila. He was the first to make European contact with this island chain. From our knowledge he visited the eastern side of the island. However it seems that he did not do much with this information. In the year of 1786 french admiral & explorer Louis Antonie de Bougainville visited the Samoan islands, he called them the Navigator islands. His reasoning for this name in particular is because of his observation of the Polynesians practice of navigating the water in dug out canoes to catch Tuna. Unfortunately after this point there were no major historical events that were recorded on the island. 19th Century During the 1810’s & 1820’s many European whalers & protestant missionaries arrived on the islands. However the majority of them arrived in the 1830’s. In doing so, the whalers severely weakened & disrupted the local whale population. This caused the local whale population to go into near extinction. The most notable of these visitors were sir English missionary John Williams of the London Missionary Society, & french naval officer Louis de Freycinet who arrived in October of 1819. This caused him to rename Tutuila “Rose island”. He named it this after his wife Rose de Freycinet who was a fellow french explorer. European (majority of which were french) settlers & Samoan people chose to develop a village on the island of Upolu instead of further developing Tutuila. This village was named Apia. After they had fully developed Apia, it became their main major trading station. In 1872 the United States Naval Force decided that Tutuilas deep water Pago Pago harbour would be the best place for a refuelling station for the brand new vessel service from San Francisco, CA to Sydney, AU. They decided to negotiate with the natives to make this happen, & they did. After 6 years of negotiations the US congress ratified the treaty. This would go on to be implemented. After such success many other foreign countries became interested in the tiny island. Great Britain & Germany in particular, were expressing their interest in claiming this island. In 1879 the native Samoans said they they would like to trade with all 3 of the countries. This boosted their international relations by a large percentage. The 3 countries then decided to form a Tripartite government over all of the Samoan islands after this. In the year of 1889, the three countries decided to hold a conference in Berlin to discuss the political future of the islands & to attempt to resolve their differences on that topic. The Americans expressed their extreme dissatisfaction with not having government rein over the islands. The countries ongoing differences led to a rather quick proposal in 1899. This proposal proposed to apportion their control among different parts of the Samoan islands that had been occupied. This ended up forming the political territory of American Samoa. The western islands then went under European control. 20th Century The Samoans ended up signing off on the ides to apparition the islands & the flag of the U.S.A was raised on Tutuila on April 17th of 1900. At this time the territory was not called American Samoa, it remained that way until 1911. The proposal was also not officially ratified by U.S congress until 1929. During the 2nd world war Tutuila became extremely convenient due to its close placement to Asia. Led by Colonel Lester A. Dessez, the U.S Marine Corps established a military base on Tutuila as well as erected concrete bunkers along the island’s coast. Despite the island’s strategic importance, it escaped almost unscathed from the war. The only exception being attacked was a launch from a Japanese submarine on January 11th of 1942. Since 1951, administration of Tutuila & the other islands of American Samoa has been the responsibility of the US Department of the Interior. In 1956 Peter Tali Coleman became the first Samoan-born governor of American Samoa. In 1960 during his tenure, protections for the islanders were approved. This included protection from confiscation of their lands & from loss of their cultural practices. After 1960, the official flag of American Samoa was made the territories official flag. In 1961 the US president John Fitzgerald Kennedy , appointed Hyrum Rex Lee as governor of American Samoa & approved US expenditure of massive funds to develop Tutuila. Which throughout the 1960s was used to finance the building of an international airport, seaport facilities, roads, schools, houses, a hospital, a tuna cannery, a modern hotel, and the installation of electricity throughout the country. In 1962, Western Samoa became independent of New Zealand, leading to uncertainty about whether the US would continue to have control of American Samoa. The massive US development efforts during the 1960s served to effectively solidify support for the continuation of Tutuila and the rest of American Samoa as a dependency of the United States. In July of 1997 Western Samoa officially changed its name to just Samoa. The reason for this name change was most likely because it would include the Americans of American Samoa. Modernly, American Samoa is an unincorporated Territory of the United States Of America. It is governed & protected by the Department’s Office of Insular Affairs. American Samoa is primarily divided into two political districts; the Eastern District & The Western District. The western district has 4 counties while the eastern district has 5 counties. The Aboriginals Of Tutuila The Polynesians of Tutuila The Polynesians were a sea migrating group of people who absolutely dominated Oceania before the Europeans came. They would migrate by sea & take over each island. They most likely originated in Taiwan or Vietnam. They had their own languages that were unfortunately, completely lost to time. They developed the majority of their languages between 3,000 & 1,000 B.C. They had their own Polynesian mythology. This religion is still practiced by some Polynesian tribes to this day. This mythology is meant to recount ancient times & the adventures of their gods, which are known as Atua. Their religion also involves traditional tattooing. One of the most interesting of their Atua the atua known as Tāne Mahuta. Tāne Mahuta is the creator of all life, the Sky father, & the earth mother. Tāne Mahuta is male in traditional mythology. He may also be known as Tāne-nui-a-rangi. The Polynesians would often fish around the island & effectively have a system of trade with the fish. They most often caught Tuna & it seems that Tuna was incredibly high value. The ancient Polynesians would cultivate Taro, sweet potato, banana, coconut, & breadfruit. This along with seafood & a few other meats would compose an ancient Polynesians diet. They made canoes from the trees on Tutuila, as Tutuila is incredibly densely wooded. They also developed their own navigational system. This system was developed to utilize the stars & the clouds in order to guide them. The Polynesians from this area most likely migrated from Taiwan to Papua New Guinea, Then from Papua New Guinea to Vanuatu, Them from there to Tutuila. Overall, Polynesians migrated all throughout Oceania & to southern parts of Asia. They migrated in a pattern that is a kin to a triangle. This pattern is now officially known as the Polynesian Triangle. However it will never truly be known the exact way they they dispersed. There are currently 3 major models as to how they could have dispersed throughout the Pacific. The first settlement that they built on the island was Tula. This village still exists to this day. They did have a chief system & a type of organized government system. This strong system was heavily influenced & made by 2 early female chiefs. These chiefs were Nafanua & Salamasina. This system was heavily matriarchal. It seems they also were a very social society, as they would often have many festivals & celebrations. The Most Destructive Natural & Man-Caused Disasters That Have Affected Tutuila No. 1 Tropical Cyclone Val Tropical cyclone Val was a Tropical Cyclone in the Pacific ocean. It lasted from the dates of December 4th 1991 to December 17th 1991. It affected the majority of Eastern Oceania. It caused a total of 17 direct & indirect fatalities. This storm was also the direct cause of multiple chemical spills around the island. It’s highest wind speed 1 minute sustained was 145 miles per hour (233.355 kilometers). Its lowest recorded pressure is 940 mbar. It caused 381 million USD in damages for all countries. Adjusted for modern inflation that would be 832,803,898.68 or 832 Million dollars. No. 2009 Samoa Earthquake & Tsunami The 2009 Samoan Earthquake & tsunami took place on the 29th of September. It was set off by an 8.1 magnitude earthquake. It then set off a tsunami due to the earthquake originating from the ocean. It affected the majority of Polynesia & Oceania. It went as far south as New Zealand & as far north as San Francisco bay. It did slightly affect the bay area. This caused a total of 189 confirmed fatalities on all countries. No. 3 Crown Of Thorns Outbreak (Environmental Disaster) This was an environmental catastrophe of the Crown Of Thorns spreading at a rapid uncontrollable pace. The crown of thorns is a type of starfish that has long spikes that protrude out of its body & appendages. When it was released near Tutuila, it caused absolute havoc. It grew over the coral & prevented it from sucking in nutrients. This caused approximately 90 percent of all Tutuilan coral to die within a few years. Luckily, this issue is being addressed & resolved by way of releasing certain fish who will consume the crown of thorns. The Economic State Of Tutuila / American Samoa The economy of American Samoa is rather stable as of 2024. It did take somewhat of a hit during 2020 due to the lack of tourism however since tourism isn’t their only industry they recovered alright. Their GDP is approximately 709 million USD. Their GDP rank is 187th Nominal.Their gdp per capita is 12,844.90 USD. They use USD has their currency on American Samoa & do not seem to accept any other currency. Their largest industries as of 2024 are tuna fishing, tuna canning, & handicrafts. Their current labor force is 17,630. Their unemployment rate is 8.36% of the population or 4,606.6108 people as the total population of American Samoa is 55,103. Their labor force by occupation is 34% agriculture (5994.2 persons), 33% manufacturing (5817.9 persons) & 33% services (5817.9 persons). Their main export partners were Indonesia, Australia, Japan, & Samoa. Their publicly traded stock markets are the New York Stock Exchange & Nasdaq. The average fair market price for a 1 bedroom apartment on American Samoa is 568 USD per month, for a 2 bedroom it is 748 USD per month, for a 3 bedroom it is 1,079 USD per month, for a 4 bedroom it is 1,147 USD per month. Directories / Credits Stanley, David (2004). Moon Handbooks South Pacific . David Stanley. p. 475 . ISBN 978-1-56691-411-6 . Retrieved December 18, 2010. “Report on Hurricane Val in American Samoa.” ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Islands of American Samoa (United States)" . Tutuila (391). UN System-Wide Earthwatch Web Site . Retrieved November 24, 2010. ^ Krämer, Augustin (2000). The Samoa Islands. University of Hawaii Press. Page 423. ISBN 9780824822194 . ^ Stanley, p.480 ^ a b c d e Dragicevich, Peter; Craig McLachlan (2009). Lonely Planet Samoa & Tonga . Lonely Planet. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-1-74104-818-6 . Retrieved December 18, 2010. ^ a b c d e f g David Stanley (1985). South Pacific handbook . David Stanley. pp. 230–. ISBN 978-0-918373-05-2 . Retrieved 21 December 2010. ^ Va'a, Unasa L.F. "Aspects of Western Sāmoa Migration to American Sāmoa" (PDF). The Journal of Sāmoan Studies. 3: 1. ^ a b c d e f g Brij V. Lal; Kate Fortune (2000). The Pacific Islands: an encyclopedia . University of Hawaii Press. pp. 560–. ISBN 978-0-8248-2265-1 . Retrieved 21 December 2010. ^ a b "Tutuila: Eastern District and Western District" . United States Census Bureau. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ Hills, J.W. (2010). O upu muamua i le Tala i le Lalolagi mo e ua faatoa a'oa'oina u lea mataupu: Elementary Geography. Nabu Press. Page 60. ISBN 9781147952896 . ^ a b c "Travel distance calculator between cities" . Map Crow. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ a b c Holly Hughes, Alexis Lipsitz Flippin, Julie Duchaine, Sylvie Murphy (2009). Frommer's 500 Extraordinary Islands . Frommer's . p. 86. ISBN 978-0-470-50070-5 . ^ The Nautical magazine . Fisher, Son & Co. 1840. p. 754. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ Google Maps (Map). Google. ^ Bing Maps (Map). Microsoft and Harris Corporation Earthstar Geographics LLC. ^ a b "Economy of American Samoa" . Nation Master Encyclopedia. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ a b c d "Effect of Cyclone Val on areas proposed for inclusion in the National Park of American Samoa" (PDF). A report to the U.S. National Park Service. Botany.hawaii.edu . pp. 3–4. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 4, 2012. Retrieved December 18, 2010. ^ a b c d Dragicevich, p.88 ^ "FEMA posts 11 disaster declarations for territory over last 40 yrs" . Samoanews. November 4, 2010. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved December 18, 2010. ^ Ward, R. Gerard; Paul Ashcroft (1998). Samoa: mapping the diversity . editorips@usp.ac.fj . pp. 17–21. ISBN 978-982-02-0134-7 . Retrieved December 17, 2010. ^ "Fagatele Bay Marine Sanctuary" . Research and Monitoring. Official Site of the Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Archived from the original on October 28, 2010. Retrieved December 17, 2010. ^ Stanley, pp. 475–477 ^ Stanley, pp. 479–481 https://www.doi.gov/emergency/factsheets/american-samoa-earthquake-and-tsunami-damage https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/preliminary-analysis-2009-samoa-tsunami http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1657&Itemid=2824 https://www.britannica.com/place/Tutuila Island https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/australia-and-south-pacific/american-samoa/history-and-culture https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/genetic-study-maps-when-and-how-polynesians-settled-the-pacific-islands-180978733/ https://dbpedia.org/page/Cyclone_Val https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:24069505 https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/2009-Samoa-Tsunami https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/preliminary-analysis-2009-samoa-tsunami https://www.nps.gov/npsa/learn/news/crown-of-thorns.htm https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/may15/crown-of-thorns.html https://www.bea.gov/data/gdp/gdp-american-samoa https://www.economy.com/american-samoa/indicators https://www.rentdata.org/states/american-samoa/2020 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Marine Biological Hall Of Distinction: Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry. Doctor Samuel Stillman Berry is an American Malacologist, Horticulturist, Zoologist, Teuthologist, & Marine Biologist. Berry was born in the year 1887, in Maine. From a young age, he was fascinated with scientific discovery. This is illustrated in that in 1903, at the age of sixteen, he repeatedly wrote to the Division of Mollusks in the Smithsonian Archives. In these letters, he would request various publications. Throughout his life, he published an astounding 209 articles, & described approximately 401 species of molluscs. The only official position he held throughout his career, was as a Librarian & Research Assistant at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, located in La Jolla, California. Aside from this, he was an independent academic. The majority of these articles were published independently, making this feat all the more remarkable. In this article, we will discuss the Early Life & Education of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry, The Career & Later Life Of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry, & The Awards, Honourables, & Achievements of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry. With that being said, let us delve into this malacologist. The Early Life & Education Of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry Samuel Stillman Berry was born on March 16th, 1887, in the town of Unity, Maine. He was born to settlers Ralph, & Evelyn Crie Berry. He spent much of his youth moving between Minneapolis, Phoenix, Pasadena, Oakland, San Francisco, & Winnecooke. His constant movement was due to his mother attempting to find an area that would be best for his fragile health. At the age of 10, he moved with his parents, along with 2 cousins, to Redlands, California. He would go on to become a permanent citizen of California, though he would maintain close connections with his extended family. As explained in the introduction, as a young man, he became interested in the pursuit of scientific discovery. He began collecting books about marine biology & horticulture, & would go on to amass a private research library of over 40,000 titles. He published his first article in the year 1906, titled “Note on a New Variety of Cerithidea sacrata Gld.” in the Nautilus. That same year, he entered Stanford University for a Bachelor’s degree in Zoology. He graduated from Stanford University in the year 1909, & would quickly pursue a master's degree at Harvard University. He graduated with his master's degree shortly after, in 1910 In 1911, his father would unfortunately pass away. For this reason, he began looking after Winnecooke Ranch. In the same year, he was elected to the board of directors of the ranch. pursued his Doctorate from Stanford University once more, & graduated in 1913.  The Career & Later Life Of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry In January of 1913, he became employed at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography. His position was as a Librarian & as a research assistant. He was recommended for employment here by the institute's director, William Emerson Ritter, by his advisor at Stanford, Charles Henry Gilbert. At the institute, he mainly worked on organizing scientific papers, & not much scientific work directly. During his time at the institute, & part of the time prior, Berry became interested in Horticulture. His primary focus was on the hybridization of irises & daffodils, though he was known to have grown peonies, pansies, gladioli, & a few different kinds of small trees at his private residence. The majority of this was in an effort to develop varieties of these plants that would fare well in the natural California climate. At the institute, Berry was not satisfied & combined with his desire to return to Redlands, he decided to stop working as a librarian in 1916, & instead switched his duties to a Non-Resident Research Zoologist. In this role, he studied the institutions' cephalopod collection, & produced a collection of reports on them. In the year 1917, he was elected president of the company holding Winnecooke Ranch, & would keep this title until his unfortunate passing. He would stop his duties at the institute in the year 1918, & become completely independent. Over the rest of his life, he would publish approximately 209 articles, primarily on chitons, cephalopods, & snails. Additionally, he published an unknown amount of horticultural articles, & reviews on horticultural books. During the Great Depression, he would start a horticultural business, & supply new as well as rare varieties of plants to customers. He would stop his horticultural business in the Late 1940s, & transition it back to a pastime. The majority of his malacological articles were first published in his journal, Leaflets on Malacology. He started Leaflets On Malacology in the year 1946, & ran it until 1969. He would publish approximately 26 editions of it. In order to properly recognize all of his contributions to the field of malacology & teuthology, Berry was elected as the only Honorary Life President of the American Malacological Union, the lifetime President of the American Association For the Advancement of Science, & the only Honorary Member of the Cephalopod International Advisory Council. Berry would unfortunately pass away in the year 1984, at the age of 97. His contributions to the field of malacology will not be forgotten.  The Awards, Honourables, Achievements, & Accomplishments Of Samuel Stillman Berry 1. He has named approximately 409 species of cephalopod.  2. He amassed a total of 40,000 books in his private research library.  3. He published 209 articles throughout his life.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Record Unit 7335”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the Smithsonian Institute Archives. Retrieval Date: January 20th, 2024. https://siarchives.si.edu/collections/siris_arc_217491 Citation No. 2: “Berry, Samuel Stillman (P.hd) Photographs”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Conchology. Retrieval Date: January 20th, 2024.  https://www.conchology.be/?t=9001&id=12831 Citation No. 3: “Samuel Stillman Berry (1887-1984)”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Bionity. Retrieval Date: January 20th, 2024. https://www.bionity.com/en/encyclopedia/Samuel_Stillman_Berry.html Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding The Island Of Tutuila, American Samoa In today’s article we will discuss the oceans surrounding the pacific island of Tutuila. Tutuila is the largest & capital island in the archipelago known as American Samoa. This island is a territory of the United States Of America. It is in the middle of Oceania. It is incredibly far from the closest continent that is considered mainland. It stands at 17,439.11 nautical miles from the continent of Australia. It is 15,939.46 miles from the country of China. It is also 7,830.43 Nautical miles from Antarctica. This island sits in the central Pacific Ocean. It is incredibly biodiverse & is home to many unique & intelligent species. A great example of this is the Pantropical spotted dolphin. A reason as to why the island is so biodiverse marine wise, is due to the great environmental factors. These environmental factors (such as coral reefs) are often maintained by humans. The oceans are calm & clear as well, making sea life very visible. The oceans are also biodynamic & have many different environments that creatures may thrive in. The island also has many unique oceanic characteristics such as the many underwater caves around. The ocean also extends quite deep in this area of the pacific leaving room for many interesting & strange deep sea fish. These will be discussed in the article. Many recreational activities take place in the oceans as well, these have formed a sort of bond between the marine wildlife & the humans of Tutuila. The island is also well known for its beaches, which are a staple in both the culture of the island & a staple for the marine animals. A reason as to why the beaches are so important is because they have unique wildlife & due to the amazing oceanic climate of the island. The lagoons of the island are also lined with coral. This creates a strong ecological complex for both the fauna & the humans who often enjoy the lagoons. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the American Samoan island of Tutuila. The Salinity, Temperatures, Tides, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Oceans Surrounding Tutuila The Salinity of the water surrounding the island of Tutuila has not fully been measured or verified. However, it can be assumed that the salinity is approximately between 34 & 37 parts per thousand. Salt deposits are also not common & brine pools are also uncommon. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. Though the island has mangrove forests these do not affect the salinity in any way. There are no randomly forming currents & there are currently no extreme currents which would pose a threat to any person. There is also little to no riptide or very high surf. The water temperatures for this island can be found on a plethora of websites however the easiest to navigate are the following; https://www.surf-forecast.com , https://www.tideschart.com , & https://www.seatemperature.org . The tidal charts can also be found on these websites. The tide usually never gets over 3.7 feet (1.12776 meters) tall from the current algorithm of the waves. The majority of the oceanic floor around the island consists of coral, sand, & rock. There are very little to no seamounts nearby the island. The deepest point within 5 Nautical/Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) of the island is 5975.7 feet (1821.39336 meters) deep. Swimming is completely safe on the island due to the low amount of water pollution, the warm temperatures, & the lack of riptide or high surf. However it is still recommended that you listen to any warnings put out by the American Samoan government. Scuba diving & snorkelling are also a common recreational activities that take place here. A reason for this is the marine biodiversity of the region. The island is in an extremes odd shape, however this shape gives it over 20,000 feet of coastline. Tutuila has approximately 6 designated marine protected areas at the time of publication. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Tutuila Coral Reefed Areas The coral reefs of Tutuila are all fringing coral reefs as opposed to being barrier reefs. There are approximately 250 documented species of coral around the island. This includes 3 species of coral which may grow as large as 10 feet in diameter. However these reefs were almost taken into complete extinction. The reason for this is the crown of thorns starfish. This starfish eats live coral tissue & they can multiple very quickly. This devastated approximately 90% of all fringing coral reefs around American Samoa. Reef algae has also run rampant & sometimes will grow completely over coral & prevent it from sucking in nutrients. This will cause the coral to die. However, parrotfish have been released & have controlled this problem relative nicely. They consume most of the reef algae in order to make sure that it does not asphyxiate the coral reefs. Mangrove Forests These mangrove forests are usually in tidal areas. However they are somewhat different then mangrove lagoons as mangrove lagoons are along lagoons instead of being in tidal areas. They are currently labelled at low to moderate vulnerability. There only 3 species of mangrove that are found growing on the island & those species are; Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (oriental mangrove), Rhizophora mangle (Red mangrove), & finally Xylocarpus moluccensis (The puzzlenut tree) is the rarest of the trio. These ecosystems are however in danger due to the sea level quickly rising. This puts them in severe risk of flooding & going completely underwater. This ecosystem provides many services towards the marine wildlife of Tutuila such as coastal protection, fish nursery habitat, hunting grounds, & shelter. Mangrove Lagoons Mangrove lagoons are quite similar except instead of being around the coast, this ecosystem exists around the lagoons. It provides the same services to the creatures of the lagoons. The area were most of this eco-complex is found is in the Pala Lagoon. The Documented Marine Flora Of Tutuila There are hundreds of types of marine flora of Tutuila. Coral will not be counted for this category as it is technically considered an animal instead of a plant. Unfortunately however not many of them have been documented of identified. One of the ones that has been documented is red algae. Red algae is strictly classified under the division of Rhodophyta. Approximately 133 species of red algae are found in the oceanic regions of Tutuila. Other types of algae have been found such as blue-green algae, brown algae, & green algae. There are approximately 27 documented species of blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) found around Tutuila. There are also 60 species of green algae (Chlorophyta) & 29 species of brown algae (Phaeophyta). As far as we know there are no endemic seagrasses or algae species that live around Tutuila. There are also only 2 seagrass species around the island. As can be seen, red algae is in the most abundance around the island. There are also invasive algae species that are red algae. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Tutuila There are hundreds of types of marine fauna around the island. For the purpose of this article we will only be counting fully aquatic species. This means that water birds will not count. The majority of them are found off the coast or in the lagoons with only a small percentage of them being left in the mangroves. However the mangroves are especially unique as they provide a service that the rest of American Samoa can’t. They provide a special type of shelter & nursery area for fish & mammals to feel safe. The rest of the American Samoan islands do not have mangrove trees, so many animals flock to the island. This is a major reason as to why the island is so extremely biodiverse. Now majority of these creatures are bacteria sized or smaller, we will not be discussing them. With that being said, here is a list of the most prominent species that support the marine ecological complexes of Tutuila; Stenella attenuata (Pantropical spotted dolphin), Balaenoptera musculus (Blue whale), Balaenoptera physalus (Fin whale), Balaenoptera borealis (Sei whale), Physeter macrocephalus (Sperm whale), Eretmochelys imbricata (Hawksbill turtle), Caretta caretta (South Pacific Loggerhead turtle), Lepidochelys olivacea (Olive Ridley turtle), Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle), Isurus oxyrinchus (Short-fin Mako shark), Carcharhinus longimanus (Oceanic White-Tip shark), Manta birostris (Giant Manta-ray), & Sphyrna lewini (Indo-West Pacific Scalloped Hammerhead shark). How The Marine Resources Were Utilized & How It Overall Affected The Marine Environment The marine resources of Tutuila were often utilized for communication fishing. Commercial fishing is still a very large industry in Tutuila. This of course, does strange things to the ecosystem. A good example of this is when a creatures main natural predator gets killed so the creature reproduces very quickly, which in turn causes another animal to decrease in population because the other creature suddenly requires more food needs. The fish were also negatively impacted due to the Pago Pago harbour being built. They were specifically affected by the boat fuel. Eco-tourism is also an increasingly popular industry on Tutuila. Eco-tourism is tourism that is for the purpose of seeing the ecological structures of the island, or seeing the ecosystems of the island. Directories / Credits https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/coral-reef-project-tutuila https://americansamoa.noaa.gov/about/ http://ecoadapt.org/data/documents/AmericanSamoa_VASummary_Mangroves.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349619846_The_Vegetation_of_Eastern_Samo https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Art-Whistler/publication/349619846_The_Vegetation_of_Eastern_Samoa/links/603852354585158939cdb54b/The-Vegetation-of-Eastern-Samoa.pdf?origin=publication_detail https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/science/condition/fbnms/history.html https://www.sprep.org/attachments/VirLib/Regional/skelton-2003-seaweeds-as.pdf http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/basch/uhnpscesu/pdfs/sam/Coles2003AS.pdf https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacific-islands/endangered-species-conservation/marine-protected-species-american-samoa Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Map Of Cape Cod This article is the seventh installment in the Ode To Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map up for Analysis is an antique map of Cape Cod, & Provincetown. Cape Cod Bay is approximately 604 square miles, though the map does not cover the entire bay. All around, the map is in marvelous condition. There is no curling damage, or any damage at all really. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the Beautiful, Cape Cod Bay. The Map Itself Since the map is in English, there is no need to translate it. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in the year 1836, by the United States Topographical Engineers. This map was found by Maps Of Antiquity, & where they originally found it is unknown. This map does not have any marien creature zones outlined on it. Though it is not labelled, the map has Herring Cove Beach displayed on it near the curl of the cape. The map is not very accurate about the lakes near Provincetown, but the proportions of the ocean are very accurate. We suspect that this map was a part of a specific collection, though we cannot say for certain. This map does not have a specific name. It does not have any coves labelled on it, but the coves are there, just unlabelled. The map has many lakes outlined quite prominently, as Provincetown was built near at least 17 lakes. The map is uncoloured, most likely for simplicity of the map. It is unclear whether or not this map was used for militaristic purposes, but it was made for such purposes. The map is primarily centered on Provincetown, not any lighthouses along the coast. Since the map was made in 1836, it is almost guaranteed that it was made using lithography. Especially since it was made by the United States Topographical Engineering Corps, the chances of it being made with an advanced for the time technique were higher. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Of Tutuila, American Samoa (Stenella Attenuata) This months article series will discuss.. The Island of Tutuila! Tutuila is the largest & capital island in the archipelago known as American Samoa. This island is a territory of the United States Of America. It is in the middle of Oceania. It is incredibly far from the closest continent that is considered mainland. It stands at 17,439.11 nautical miles from the continent of Australia. It is 15,939.46 miles from the country of China. It is also 7,830.43 Nautical miles from Antarctica. It is extremely biodiverse due to its nutrients, good climate, & marine protected areas. It also is an attractive area for animals to mate or give birth. The isle is also a common place to find water birds, however for the purpose of this article we will not count them as fully marine animals. However, this article is not for the purpose of discussing the oceans that surround Tutuila. This article is for the purpose of discussing a common animal found in these oceans. That animal, is known as the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin. This animal is a species of dolphin that is found throughout many corners of the world. It however, is found in a higher density throughout Tutuila. These creatures are beautiful & incredibly intelligent creatures. They are capable of using certain oceanic creatures as tools. They often interact with humans in many different ways, they seem to be curious about the human race as they are friendly. However this does not mean that you should approach them as they are still wild creatures & are untamed. This dolphin species is especially friendly towards humans. In this article we will discuss the life of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin , the distribution of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin, & finally the scientific detailings of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin. With that being said, let us delve into this interesting, complex, important, & brilliant species. The Life Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin This species was first described in 1846, the very genetically close genus however was first described in 1829. The species was first described by french naturalist, Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Baron Cuvier. This is often just abbreviated as Cuvier. It is not mentioned exactly how this creature was discovered, but it can be assumed that it was on a voyage through oceania. Their size is approximately 8.2 feet (2.49936 meters) as a full grown adult, this size estimation is not taking into account gender. The approximate mass of this creature is 260 pounds (117.934 kilograms). Their average lifespan is 43 years. This is actually quite fair for a dolphin. Maturity usually occurs at around 11 years of age. It is a well known fact that dolphins are incredibly smart. They are able to communicate their needs with each other & humans. They are also capable of learning tricks or mirroring other dolphins behaviours. Some studies suggest that dolphins are some of the smartest animals, only second to humans. They are incredibly social animals & seem to have almost their own language. They will make clicking noises towards each other. Using brain size as a barometer, dolphins come in very close to humans in brain to body size ratio. They seem to be the second animals on this scale. However, the vast majority of the ocean is still undiscovered so this very well may change. They also, have developed a use for underwater echolocation. They use echolocation in order to hunt in particularly deep water or water with very low visibility. They also have excellent memories, they are able to remember the faces of their caretakers in certain areas like rehabilitation centers. They also will favour certain humans over others. They are able to crave or want attention from certain humans, this is most well documented in the Nasa-funded experiment known as “Dolphinarium”. In this experiment Margaret Howe Lovatt attempted to teach an adolescent dolphin “Peter” to speak English. This did not work as Peter would become sexually aroused. This experiment proved that dolphins can apparently, lust after humans. This says a lot about the neuroscience behind love in dolphins & how it is eerily similar to humans. Dolphins as a whole have existed for approximately 11 million years. The diet of this creature usually consists of cephalopods & fish. They are not cannibalistic in any form. They usually eat approximately between 16-27 pounds of food. Their metabolism is similar to that of most land mammals. Their most common natural predators are various larger species of sharks & Orcas. Dolphins effectively swim by arching their backs & moving their flukes vertically up & down at a vary fast pace in order to generate momentum in the water and propel themselves forward. At top speed this species of dolphin has been recorded as traveling as fast as 28 kilometers per hour (17.3984 miles per hour). They are not aggressive towards humans unless provoked. They are however, extremely aggressive to each other. Especially during breeding season. They are incredibly social creatures. They can be territorial & males will battle males over certain territories, with females this is not the same. This species is listed as least concern on the IUCN red list. This means that this species is not in need of any conservational assistance & is thriving on its own. There are an estimated 2.5 million of Pantropical spotted dolphins alive at this point. Pantopical spotted dolphins are long & slender creatures in their physical aspects. Pantropical spotted dolphins do not have spots at birth but accumulate them as they age until they are almost completely covered with overlapping patterns. They are also distinguished by a dark cape or coloration on their backs which stretches from their head to almost midway between the dorsal fin & to their tail flukes. Another prominent feature of their physique is a white-tipped beak. The Mating Tactics, Procedures, Cycles, & Practices Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Dolphins mate via sexual reproduction. They usually reach sexual maturity at around 11 years for both genders. Between the ages of 11 & 35 they tend to be most fertile & willing to mate. They do not have a specific breeding month as breeding is a year round activity. A reason for this maybe due to the climate that they choose to live in. The females will usually only give birth every 3-5 years of their lives. These creatures are also not hermaphroditic however occasionally a dolphin maybe born intersex. They mate via internal fertilization which involves the male hooking his penis onto the female in order to ensure reproductive success underwater. This often results in them mating while their stomachs are touching. Their penises are also quite thick & stiff. The penises will not extend as well. It is not known exactly the average of how long this species of dolphins penises are. These penises are also not straight at all, they are in fact quite oddly shaped. The gestation period is approximately 11 months however it may be as long as 1 year. They usually only have 1 child & twins are statistically possible however that it is incredibly unlikely that twins occur. The mother will breastfeed her young for 2-3 years. However they can consume fish in as little as 5 months. They are still dependent on their mothers milk by that point though. They will often take care of the baby up until they are 5-10 years old. At this point the baby may leave to mate or just leave because they are ready to do so. The Distribution Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Pantropical spotted dolphins are not limited to just the southern hemisphere. They are found throughout virtually all tropical & subtropical seas throughout the world. They prefer these areas due to climate & favourable food availability. They are most commonly found in open oceanic areas, they don’t often go extremely close towards the coast. They seem to prefer waters that are above 75° Fahrenheit (23.8889 Celsius). They prefer being in the upper 80 feet of water due to their enjoyment of sun. Their preferred habitat is an area with lots of coral or rocks because those often attract prey. They do not however limit themselves to just 1 area & will go wherever they like. They are found everywhere from east Africa to the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. This creature does not have any known subspecies as of the time of publishing. They also don’t often cross breed with other similar species so having a hybrid would not happen naturally. Even though they are capable of crossbreeding in the wild, they just don’t. The Scientific Detailings Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Dolphins are quite infamous for a few things, but the main thing is that they are able to blow water out of a hole in the top of their head. The reason that they do this is because they have to breathe through their nostrils. They cannot breathe underwater like many other marine animals. To be clear, the water that they blow out does not come from the dolphins lungs. It comes is just water that sits atop their head. They blow this water out to inhale, they are able to only inhale through their blowholes. Their skeletal system is rather similar to that of humans. They are vertebrates. They also have no dorsal fin bone. They have approximately 300 bones in their individual bodies. Their teeth are pyramid-eske & pointed. This makes them perfect for ripping off flesh from creatures bodies. They have approximately 240 teeth. They also do not seem to have multiple layers of teeth. We have already discussed the majority of dolphin neuroscience & the capability of their brains so there is no need to discuss it further. However, as a quick note they are also able to feel jealousy. Especially when fighting over the female dolphins. Their blood is red much like humans. It is believed that all dolphin species have evolved from the creature known as Pakicetus. This creature was a four-legged mammal that would walk on land. This creature lived approximately 50 million years ago. Obviously, many changes had to have been gone through in order for Pakicetus to become modern day dolphin species. The image above depicts the suspicted evolutionary chain of what led to the modern day dolphin. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity of fur or hair, & three middle ear bones. There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Artiodactyla. which are even toed ungulates. Species categorized under Artiodactyla are ungulates, hoofed animals which bear weight equally on two of their five toes, these toes are the third & fourth toes. The other three toes are either present, absent, vestigal, or pointing posteriorly. Their infraorder is that of Cetacea. Key characteristics of this infraorder are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size & exclusively carnivorous diet. Another characteristic is their incredible social intelligence. There are roughly 90 species categorized under Cetacea. Their family is Delphinidae. This family consists of most oceanic dolphins. This family does not include river dolphins. Two characteristics of this order is that they are purely carnivorous & they are all usually incredibly social creatures. Some great examples of this are the fact that majority of these species live in pods or large groups. Their genus is Stenella. This genus consists of 5 current species (however this number may change in the future). This genus is incredibly special & abnormal as it holds the only known confirmed case of a hybrid species in oceanic mammals. This dolphin is known as the Stenella Clymene. This genus is informally known as bridled or spotted dolphins. This species binomial name is known as Stenella Attenuata. Directories / Credits https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/pantropical-spotted-dolphin https://www.vallarta-adventures.com/en/blog/how-smart-are-dolphins https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/how-intelligent-are-whales-and-dolphins/ https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/06/how-a-science-experiment-led-to-sexual-encounters-for-a-woman-and-a-dolphin/372606/ https://allthatsinteresting.com/margaret-howe-Lovatt https://animalia.bio/pantropical-spotted-dolphin Hunting - Wild Dolphin Project http://www.kevkurtz.com/his-blog/2016/11/2/how-do-dolphins-sleep https://www.whalefacts.org/dolphins-move/ https://study.com/learn/lesson/dolphins-mating-reproduction.html#section---LessonSummary https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/the-mechanics-of-dolphin-sex-all-the-dirty-details-you-need-to-know https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/how-do-dolphins-give-birth/ https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/how-do-whales-and-dolphins-breathe/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa ReplyForward

The Documented History Of Malibu, California In todays article, we will discuss the documented history of Malibu, California. Malibu, California is a city located along the coast of Southern California. It is famed for its beautiful beaches & it’s wide array of celebrities. Malibu is located in Los Angeles county, approximately 32.60 miles from Downtown Los Angeles. What is not well known about Malibu, is the fact that Malibu’s beaches are flooded by many different species of marine life. It is not often seen that Malibu offers a unique marine environment compared to other California coastal areas. For example, in Malibu Lagoon State Beach, many wading birds will swim around the lagoon & watch swimmers alike. Not only that, but Malibu is a prime area for Mussel hunting. Malibu has an abundance of Mussels so you may take them & eat them, however there are certain months of the year in which they are poisonous, so make sure to do research as to if they are safe to eat. Malibu is also a prime area to fish off of a pier, as the Malibu Sport Fishing pier is always open & extremely busy. On this pier, a fishing license is not required to fish. The majority of Malibu does require a fishing permit, so make sure to check the areas in which you are fishing. Malibu has a unique, & interesting history spanning the course of 3,000 years. The Chumash were the first people to inhabit the Malibu Coastal Region, & they were the only Native American tribe to inhabit Malibu. In fact, the word “Malibu” is a Chumash word. The Chumash inhabited the area of Malibu to Paso Robles & Morro Bay. Malibu’s largest elevation is currently 105 feet (32.004 meters) in the air, as Malibu is located along the coast, making it rather low laying. The current population of Malibu is surprisingly low, being at the mere number of 10,564 residents. It is 19.90 square miles (51.54076 square kilometers), giving it a population density of 540 residents per square mile (210 residents per square kilometer. It is in the time zone of Pacific Standard Time which covers parts of Mexico, Canada, & the United States. Their current city website, is malibucity.org, & it most likely will not change. In this article we will discuss the documented history of Malibu, California, the aboriginals of Malibu, California, the most destructive natural & man-caused disasters, & finally the economic state of Malibu. With that being said, let us delve into the place where the surf sounds loudly. The Documented History Of Malibu, California Before Colonization History from 2,500 B.C Before Colonization by the Mexicans, the Chumash Native Americans inhabited the area, & owned the land. They have inhabited the land since at minimum 2,500 B.C, which is 4,523 years from this current date. However, some evidence suggests they could have been in Malibu since 7,000 B.C, though this is not confirmed. The Chumash built a village in the place that is now Malibu, & they called this village Humaliwo. Humaliwo is a Chumash word that translates to “where the surf sounds loudly”. The exact place where this village was is on a hill, just across from Malibu Lagoon State Beach. History From The 1500’s In the year 1542, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo led an expedition from Baja California to California. This was the first contact the Spanish had with California. During this time, Cabrillo ventured to Malibu Lagoon to obtain fresh water. Not much else happened in this century for Malibu, as it was not completely colonized by the Spanish yet. After Colonization By The Spanish History From The 1600’s Nothing major happened during this century for the History of Malibu. History From The 1700’s During this time, Malibu became extremely important to the development of the Spanish system of missions. This system, established in 1769, was a system of 21 Catholic outposts founded by the Catholic priests of the Franciscan Order made to evangelize the Native Americans. It was important because the majority of the missions were on the land that Malibu currently resides on. Spanish History From The 1800’s In the year 1804, José Bartholomé Tapia was given a land grant from the Spanish Governor Jose Joaquin de Arrillaga. Malibu was part of this land grant, which was called “Rancho Topanga Malibu Seguit”. The land was used for predominantly Spanish Missions. This makes José Bartholomé Tapia the first historical land owner in Malibu. The Rancho Topanga Malibu Seguit was a Spanish grant consisting of 13,316 acres of Land. This land was in the Santa Monica Mountains, & the coast alongside them. In April of 1822, the land in which California is was made a Mexican territory following Mexicos Independence. All history in the century from beyond this point will be included in the subsection “After Colonization By The Mexicans”. After Colonization By the Mexicans Mexican-Californian History From The 1800’s In the year 1848 after Tapia died, his wife now widow inherited the land. She then sold this home in the same year to grandson in law, Leon Victor Prudhome. Shortly after, on September 9th of 1850, California became the 31st state to be added to the United States of America. All history in the century from beyond this point will be included in the subsection “After Colonization By The United States”. to After Colonization By The United States American-Californian History From The 1800’s In 1857, Prudhome sold the land to an Irishman known as Matthew Keller, or Don Mateo. The United States Surveyor General surveyed the land in 1857 to approve the land grant to Matthew Keller. The Surveyor approved the land to be given to Keller in 1872. After 1871, all real estate deeds are traceable to “The land of Matthew Keller”. In the year 1881 Matthew Keller unfortunately passed away, & his son Henry Keller inherited the land. He held onto this land until 1892, when he sold it to Frederick Hastings Rindge. At this point Frederick Hastings Rindge & May Rindge Became the owners of the land. They were the last private owners of the land, they managed to expand the land grant from 13,330 acres to 17,000 acres. History From The 1900’s When Fredrick unfortunately passed away in 1905, May Rindge took over the preservation of the property & management of the property. This earned her the prestigious & honourable title of “Queen Of Malibu”. She also began the famed “Malibu Potteries” business which made the Malibu tile that is sought after for homes modernly. When May eventually unfortunately passed away, the property was passed through the family to Rhoda Agatha Rindge, who married Merrit Huntley Adamson. The Rindge Family attempted to keep Malibu private property, however their efforts were futile. It was the last piece of land along the coast without a public road running through it in the early 1900’s. In the year 1921 on November the 3rd, after much legal struggle, it was decided that a county road would be built through the property. The Rindge’s built a beach home along Malibu Lagoon in the year 1929, which is still preserved to date, & brings in lots of tourism. In the year 1929, when the Roosevelt Highway, which is modernly the pacific highway, was built, it ended the long period of Malibu’s isolation. With a new public highway through Malibu, it began developing a flourishing economy. This development mainly started when the La Costa area was sold for 6 Million U.S.D in 1928. Malibu Colony was then leased to various movie stars, & famous singers. It then became an exclusive beach, & soon after that it became a popular hideout for Hollywood actors, hosts, singers, & directors. Movie Colony has henceforth been the playground for the business elite, & the Hollywood stars. May Rindge, who was still alive, wanted to live a private life on this land still. She ended up selling all of her land to go lead a private life elsewhere. The area continued to grow, with Hollywood becoming more & more popular along with the Los Angeles Area. On March 28th of 1991, Malibu was officially incorporated into a city. Malibu Currently has 21 miles of coastline. The Aboriginals Of Malibu, California The Chumash Native American Aboriginals The Chumash were a group of Native Americans inhabiting the areas from Malibu all the way to Paso Robles & Morro Bay. They inhabited 3 of the channel islands, those being Santa Rosa Island, Santa Cruz Island, & Santa Miguel Island. They were most concentrated in the Santa Barbara Channel region. At its peak, their population was approximately 25,000. They spoke the Chumashan languages, of which there are 3 predominant ones. There are North Chumash, Central Chumash, & Island Chumash. The Island Chumash was primarily spoken by those on Santa Rosa Island, Santa Cruz Island, & Santa Miguel Island. These languages, are unfortunately classified as extinct & have been since the early 1960’s. They mainly consumed seafood, such as the black abalone, pacific littleneck clam, bent-nosed clam, Olympia oysters, angular unicorn snails, butternut clam & red abalone. They would get these by spear fishing, & by using nets to catch the fish. They also had a primitive kind of fishing rod. Acorns were also often found in their diets, in the form of being ground up & cooked in a soup. They would also feast on the fruits of the laurel sumac tree. They also would use the ocean for transport as they would make dug-out canoes, which no doubt helped them in their expansion to the various channel islands. This also helped them, make trade with other villages & populations of natives. At their peak, they had approximately 150 independent villages. The largest of these villages were located along the mainland coast in Santa Barbara. The smaller villages tended to be located in areas that did not have immediate access to a spring, lake, or ocean. Each village had access to the majority of the resources Southwest California has to offer, because they all traded with each other. In addition to being inventive, they were also extremely successful at basket weaving. They would weave baskets for various purposes such as holding food, or using them to catch animals. They would also make various beads, for jewelry, & to weave into the baskets. They are not on record to have attacked any other neighbouring natives. They all had individual houses in their respective villages, & each village would have a sweat-house. A sweat-house is a house is a place for cleansing. Each individual village would have something like a playground for the children. This playground would have a flat outdoor area used to play games such as Payas, Peon, & Shinny. There would also be other areas in the village used for dancing, because dance was important in the Chumash culture. This ceremonial dance ground would have a high fence of tule mats, as tule mats serve as a nice windbreak. Inside of the sacred dance ground, was a semi circular area in which shamans & preists would perform religious rituals. Little is known about their religion, however they were most certainly polytheistic. They were also extremely skilled at medicine, & using the local herbs & plants to produce medicines. The Most Destructive Natural & Man-Caused Disasters To Ever Affect Malibu Disaster No. 1: The 1996 Calabasas Fire On October 21st of 1996, a major fire broke out in the Calabasas-Malibu area. It raged for 5 days & burned approximately 13,010 acres of land in both Malibu & Calabasas. It damaged approximately 6 structures. The fire was not contained until October 26th of 1996. Thankfully, no fatalities were reported. Disaster No. 2: The 1993 Old Topanga Fire On November 3rd of 1993, a flame sparked in the Malibu area. This fire would go on to mercilessly burn for 10 days. It scorched 18,000 acres of land in the Malibu area. In its path, it left 359 houses in ruin & 3 fatalities. It also burnt Mulholland Highway & the Pacific Coastal Highway. Unfortunately, some parents could not make it back to Malibu in time to get their children, so they were sheltered at the Point Dume Malibu Community Center. The Red Cross sheltered approximately 80 people at the center, 30 of which were school aged children. The flames raged on for 10 more days, until it was contained on November 11th of 1993. The Economic State Of Malibu The economic state of Malibu is stable, however it largely depends on Tourism. The job market in Malibu has increased by 0.7% in the year 2022, & it is predicted to increase by 33.7% over the next decade. The average salary for a person living in Malibu is 95,212$ a year. The Median Household income is 130,432$ a year. Currently, Malibu has an unemployment rate of 10.9%. The average home in Malibu, currently costs $3,326,388. The average rent for a studio apartment in Malibu is 2,295 U.S.D per month, & the average rent for a 2 bedroom apartment is 6,948 U.S.D per month. Directories / Credits “History Of Malibu” Written By Unknown. Published by the Malibu • Pacific Palisades Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.malibu.org/history-of-malibu “Welcome to Malibu” Written By Unknown. Published by All Things Malibu. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.allthingsmalibu.com/city-of-malibu/ “The Story Of Malibu” Written By Thomas W. Doyle, Toni Doyle, Charlotte H. Laubach, Frederick C. May, Judge John J. Merrick, Luanne Pfeifer, Ronald L. Rindge, & Juanita B. Ringer, then edited by Luanne Pfeifer. Published by the Malibu Lagoon Museum. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.malibucity.org/106/History-of-Malibu “Chumash Life” Written By Unknown. Published By The Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.sbnature.org/collections-research/anthropology/chumash-life/ “Calabasas-Malibu Fire Declared Contained” Written By Hugo Martin Published, October 28th 1996 12:00 AM PST. Published by the Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-10-28-me-58721-story.html “Fire burns behind the Rockwell Towers Residence Hall” Taken By Unknown, October 21st-26th 1996. Published by Pepperdine University, Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://pepperdine.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p15730coll27/id/1145/ “20 Years Later: The Old Topanga Fire” Written by 13StarsManager, Published November 6th 2023. Published by the Malibu Times, Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://malibutimes.com/article_bff8ba0a-46b1-11e3-b60c-001a4bcf887a “Economy in Malibu, California” Written by Unknown. Published by Bestplaces.net, & retrieved on May 11th 2023. https://www.bestplaces.net/economy/city/california/malibu “Malibu, CA Rent Prices” Written By Unknown. Published by zumper.com, retrieved on May 11th 2023. https://www.zumper.com/rent-research/malibu-ca Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California Today’s article will be discussing the oceans surrounding Malibu, California. Malibu, California is a city located along the coast of Southern California. It is famed for its beautiful beaches & it’s wide array of celebrities. Malibu is located in Los Angeles county, approximately 32.60 miles from Downtown Los Angeles. What is not well known about Malibu, is the fact that Malibu’s beaches are flooded by many different species of marine life. It is not often seen that Malibu offers a unique marine environment compared to other California coastal areas. For example, in Malibu Lagoon State Beach, many wading birds will swim around the lagoon & watch swimmers alike. Not only that, but Malibu is a prime area for Mussel hunting. Malibu has an abundance of Mussels so you may take them & eat them, however there are certain months of the year in which they are poisonous, so make sure to do research as to if they are safe to eat. Malibu is also a prime area to fish off of a pier, as the Malibu Sport Fishing pier is always open & extremely busy. On this pier, a fishing license is not required to fish. The majority of Malibu does require a fishing permit, so make sure to check the areas in which you are fishing. Additionally, they have a wide array of different marine ecosystems & landscapes. One of the main ones, is the rocky tidal pools & the various oceanic rock formations found along the beaches. These hold various crustaceans & many other species. This will be discussed in further detail in the section titled “The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California”. There are also many salt water marshes with beautiful wading birds that live in the marsh. These are found extremely prominently in Malibu Lagoon. For this reason, among wading bird watchers, makes Malibu extremely popular. Aside from that, Malibu is extremely beautiful for tourists in Los Angeles as it has some of the highest ratings for beaches in Southern California. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, tides, temperatures, marine geography, basic Information of the oceans surrounding Malibu, California, The most prominent ecosystems of the oceans surrounding Malibu, California, the Documented marine flora of Malibu, California, the documented Marine Fauna of Malibu, California, & finally How the oceanic resources of Malibu have been utilized & how it has affected the environment. The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California Unfortunately, the exact salinity of Malibu has never been measured. Since Malibu rests in the Pacific ocean, it has a lesser salinity then the Atlantic. Salt deposits or brine pools have not been proven to be found around the island in higher concentrations then other areas. However, this could change. Since the average salinity of the water in the southwestern Pacific is 35 parts per thousand at any given time, it can be assumed that the salinity level is somewhere around that. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is the way that salinity is currently measured. There is something that could result in a change in the salinity of the coastal waters located along Malibu. This would be the trapping of brackish water in the marshes, which could result in an extremely salty coastline. If brackish water gets stuck in marshes, then it will disrupt the input & output of salt. This could cause a coastline with a high salinity, which will in turn result in the death of certain species. The oceanic temperatures of Malibu can be found on a plethora of websites, however the most user friendly ones are as follows; https://seatemperature.net , https://www.surf-forecast.com , https://seatemperature.info , https://www.seatemperatu.re , & finally, seatemperatures.nethttps://seatemperatures.net . The annual average oceanic temperature in Malibu currently rests at 62° Fahrenheit (16.6667° Celsius). This requires a wetsuit thickness of 2 to 3 & a half millimeters. The tidal charts for Malibu can also be found on a few of those websites. Occasionally, Malibu may receive waves as high as 20.56 feet high. This usually only happens at Malibu Surfrider beach & Zuma Beach though. The waves are often much tamer then that, & reach a length of 5-6 feet on an average day. Oftentimes the oceanic floor along Malibu’s coastline will consist of sand & rock, instead of coral or any other substance. Also there are little to no oceanic mounds around Malibu. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine Miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) around Malibu is currently 2,457.7 feet deep. There are certainly randomly forming currents around Malibu which can be dangerous for swimmers & surfers alike. These currents are called rip currents or riptides, which can be extremely dangerous as they will pull a swimmer out to sea. They can be easily spotted because they are usually full of foamy brownish coloured water. This is due to a lot of sand becoming mixed into the rip current. If you see this in Malibu, do not swim near it or enter the water as you may be pulled under water. This can make is occasionally unsafe for swimmers, however they can be somewhat easy to spot, so just do your research to make sure that there is not a rip current out at sea. Aside from this, Malibu has some extremely beautiful beaches, & experiences a fair amount of tourism. Currently, the best beaches to visit along Malibu are Point Dume, Zuma Beach, Carbon Beach, Malibu Surfrider’s Beach, Malibu Lagoon State Beach, & finally Paradise Cove Beach. Pollution isn’t that large of an issue along Malibu, at least not to the point where it can injure a swimmers health. You are go scuba diving & snorkelling in Malibu, however the visibility may not be very good in certain areas. There unfortunately, are not coral reefs in Malibu at this time, the nearest coral reefs would be farther south. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California Coastal Rock Pools / Tide Pools Coastal Rock pools are extremely common along the Malibu Coastline. They are commonly found along beaches, & are not often nearby marshland. These ecosystems are not always habitable as during low tide periods. These ecosystems often contain crustaceans & various shellfish. Mussels are found extremely commonly in these ecosystems, specifically in Malibu. These ecosystems line the coastline & are only found along the coastline. These often are the most disturbed ecosystems as humans, because they are the closest to areas active with humans. When going near tide pools it is important to avoid damaging any structures as this could severely affect all of the creatures in said ecosystem. Also, sea urchins are frequently found nestled in this ecosystem so when you if you have to walk through this ecosystem, be careful. Salt Water Marshland This type of ecosystem is extremely common throughout Malibu & its various beaches. One of the main places were this ecosystem is found on Malibu Lagoon State Beach. These ecosystem often has 2-3 feet of seawater & tall seagrass growing out of the water. This ecosystem is often where most wading birds are found as wading birds enjoy shallow areas that their body is able to stick up out of. They will often go into this ecosystem & hunt fish & various crustaceans. Crabs, Mussels, & small fish can be found in this ecosystem along with wading birds. The species of seagrass most prominent in this ecosystem is Zostera Marina. This ecosystem does fluctuate depth depending on the tide, however it can be from 5 to 12 feet (1.524 to 3.6576 meters) deep. The Documented Marine Flora Of Malibu, California There are approximately 2 prominent species of seagrass found along Malibu, these species are known as Zostera Marina (Common eelgrass), & Phyllospadix Scouleri (Scouler’s seagrass). Zostera Marina however, holds a special & significant role compared to Phyllospadix scouleri. One thing that Eelgrass does that surfgrass can’t do as well. is prevent water erosion. Surfgrass can prevent water erosion however eelgrass is better at it, as it can slow water currents. This makes eelgrass extremely important as it prevents new waterways from being created underground. These seagrasses are often found in large patches, & when they die they will wash on shore &, line the beaches. Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass) Zostera Marina is the first species of seagrass found along Malibu’s coast. It is recognizable because it has 1 long stem that is often 1 meter (3.28084 feet) long. The stem is often between 0.5 (0.19685 inches) & 1 centimeter (0.393701 inches) thick. This one is the one most often found on the coast as it grows along muddy & sandy shorelines. This seagrass is also most commonly found in marshes, which is most likely why it is such a popular food among wading birds. It is found from the Alaskan Panhandle to Baja California Sur. Phyllospadix Scouleri (Scoulers Surfgrass) The second species of seagrass is Phyllospadix Scouleri. This species is extremely recognizable because it is vividly green, very flat, & very long. It looks very silky & it grows in large clumps, these clumps are often exposed during low tide & submerged during high tide. These clumps can be approximately 0.5 feet (0.1524 meters) in diameter & as long as 2 feet (0.6096 meters). This species of seagrass is found from the Alaskan Panhandle to Baja California Sur. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Malibu, California Malibu attracts a wide array of different marine creatures due to its strange array ecosystems. It is semi-hard to keep a straight log of all species that live throughout Malibu because the majority of them are highly migratory. Malibu is often attractive for species because it has many different types of mollusks, which helps the food chain survive well. Additionally, Malibu is often used for surfing instead of other swimming recreations like Santa Monica or Avalon beach. This prevents it from becoming very polluted, so more species are able to thrive & more ecosystems are able to be built. Also, Malibu has a lot of seagrass which helps various species of marine reptiles thrive. As far as we know, the salinity of Malibu is not an attractive feature for animals. For the sake of this article, we will not be stating any animals that have not been spotted around Malibu in the least year. There are currently no known endemic species to Malibu. With that being said, the list of all the most prominent species currently found around Malibu is as follows: Phoca Vitulina (Harbour Seal), Mytilus Californianus (California Mussel), Thylacodes Squamigerus (Scaled Worm Snail), Fissurella Volcano (Volcano Keyhole Limpet), Nanavax Inermis (California Aglaja), Leukoma Staminea (Pacific Littleneck Clam), Flabellinopsis Iodenia (Spanish Shawl), Octopus Bimaculoides (Lesser Two Spot Octopus), Lottia Scabea (Rough Limpet), Donax Gouldii (Gould Beanclam), & finally the Bulla Gouldiana (Cloudy Bubble Snail). How The Oceanic Resources Of Malibu Have been Utilized & How It Has Affected The Environment Most oftentimes, The Oceanic resources of Malibu have been utilized for fishing, & tourism. Not much commerical fishing takes place off the coast of Malibu, however plenty of non-commercial fishing does. The most common place to fish that is on the Malibu Coastline is the Malibu Sport Fishing Pier. This pier does not require a license to fish on as of 2023. These sport anglers will often affect the population of California corbina, & Halibut in the region as these are the most common fish to catch year round. The tourism as not affected the marine life in Malibu very badly because the surfers of Malibu are considerate of the ocean creatures. Directories / Credits Bardach, J. E. , Morgan, . Joseph R. and Cotter, . Charles Henry (2023, March 31). Pacific Ocean. Encyclopedia Britannica. https:// www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean “Water Temperature In Malibu by Month”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by SeaTemperature.net. Retrieval Date: June 19th 2023. https://seatemperature.net/current/united-states/malibu-california-united-states-sea-temperature “Rip Currents” Written by Author Eclectice, June 22nd 2018. Published by the Malibu Mako Club. Retrieved April 27th 2023. https://www.malibumakos.com/rip-currents/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of The Gulf Of Venice, Italy This article is the sixth instalment in the Ode To Oceanography Series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map up for analysis, is an antique nautical chart of the Gulf of Venice. The gulf of Venice is approximately 75 miles wide, & is approximately 125 feet deep on average. The map is in wonderful condition, apart from some curling in the upper side of the map. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the Venetian Gulf. The Map Itself This map is in french. The front emblem says “Carte Reduite De Golfe de Venise”, which translates to “Reduced Map Of The Gulf Of Venice”. This map is specifically off the gulf, & all islands or other land areas are left off the map. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in the year 1820, by Captain Gauttier. The map was found by Maps Of Antiquity, & the original owner of the map is unknown. This map was most likely made in france, due to the map being in french. This map has no rapids, or topographical features outlined on the map. Additionally, there are no marine creature areas outlined on the map. The map is extremely proportionally accurate. As far as we are aware the map is not a part of a specific collection, nor does it have a particular name. This map remains uncoloured, most likely for simplicity the map is not centered on any country, island, or light house. It was also not made or used for any militaristic purposes. Due to the time that the map was made, it is hard to say exactly how it was made. In the year 1820, lithography began becoming commercially popular, which makes the chances of it being made by they method more likely. Since we do not know what country this map was made in, we do not know if lithography had become commercially popular in that area yet. Lithography is still the most likely option, but by a slimmer margin. The first technique that will be discussed is the bronze slab technique. In this technique, there are 5 jobs, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, the papermaker, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually there would only be 1-2 plates used, however it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Then after this, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. In the second method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa