A distinguished photograph of Freya Longden. Freya, with long green hair and glasses, stands on a rocky beach wearing a black shirt. She is holding a mermaids purse, which is a dark coloured slate egg. Credit to Freya Longden. Recently, our head writer sat down for an interview with the infectiously passionate Marine Scientist & Accessibility Advocate, Freya Longden! Freya Longden (She/Her) is a British marine scientist & accessibility advocate hailing from Bristol, UK. She is best known for her work with the National Marine Aquarium in Plymouth, UK, & her advocacy for accessibility in marine science. In today’s interview, we sit down with Freya to discuss her infectious passion for the ocean, her work in marine science, what ocean literacy looks like, her accessibility journey, what it means to be accessible, how we can learn to be more accessible in ocean spaces, & her advice for young, passionate people looking to make their way in an ocean profession. Before delving into today’s comprehensive 16-question interview, please note that everything said has been edited for clarity, & that the opinions of our interviewee do not necessarily reflect the opinions & values of our organization. With that being said, let us delve into the contents of the interview! The Contents of the Interview Questions About Her Passion: 1. What sparked your passion for marine science & all things ocean? Pretty much exploring to begin with, especially as a kid. I spent a lot of family holidays by the beach, especially in the Southwest of the UK. I absolutely loved getting involved getting out there, seeing what I could find. It went from there really. We went to Devon & Cornwall, which are pretty much seaside towns. There are a lot of beaches, a mixture of proper sandy beaches, & some rocky shores. We spent a lot of time either snorkeling through kelp beds or rockpooling, finding all kinds of things. It was a really lovely place to explore; they’ve got some amazing biodiversity down there. 2. Was there any particular person, place, media franchise, or book that assisted in sparking your passion? Dawlish is such an amazing little area in Devon. It’s got these amazing cafes, & wildlife to explore. A photograph of Dawlish, Devon County, England. Small boats line the cozy shoreline. Credit to Devon Guide. For a person, I’d say Steve Backshall. He was a big inspiration to me. I remember running home from school every day to make sure I made it in time for an episode of Deadly 60. Now, 15 years later, I still rush to put on whatever show he’s just released, or read his articles. For media, I’m a big Disney fan. I’m a massive Disney fan. My favourite has always been Lilo & Stitch. I fell in love with lots of tropical animals, just from watching Lilo & Stitch on repeat & falling in love with Hawaii, which made me really want to explore the local wildlife I’ve got here because of that. They had so many amazing local species that they were exploring alongside fighting aliens, & all kinds of things in the film. 3. What sparked your passion for marine education & ocean literacy? I’ve always loved sharing information to be honest. I was the nerd friend at school, always coming in every day at lunch, being excited about these new facts I’d learnt from a documentary & things like that. It came from seeing my friend’s reactions, & my classmates' reactions to some of this cool information. I’ve really seen how important ocean literacy is. The ocean is so important, from producing the oxygen we breathe, to medicine, to biodiversity, to the mental health benefits of the ocean. It’s so important; it’s such an integral part of our lives. I think having an ocean-literate society is so important for protecting the ocean, but also for protecting ourselves as well. To me, ocean literacy is about having the knowledge & understanding of how our oceans work, how they function, our relationship with them, & then having confidence to be empowered to engage with it. Whether that engagement is going for a sea swim, reading a book about the ocean, or contacting local counsellors & government about marine issues, just confidence to be involved. Quite often, I think the ocean can be a scary place for a lot of people. Being able to connect people with it, then being able to take it further in whatever way works for them, is the definition, to me, of what an ocean literate person is. 4. What is your favourite marine or terrestrial animal personally, & what is your favourite marine or terrestrial animal which you have worked with? I generally love animals that have quite a weird biology. I don’t particularly love octopuses & sharks. They are incredible animals, down to how many different species there are, & how long they’ve been around. My favourite to work with has probably been Gloria. She was a Giant Pacific Octopus that I worked with a long time ago while I was a volunteer. I spent quite a lot of time doing public shows with her, with her eating & enjoying her enrichment activities, & me telling the public all about her while she was doing it. She was such an amazing octopus, incredibly intelligent, & it was amazing to get to see her every day. She was probably my favourite I’ve worked with, but even now I work with some amazing animals like turtles & sharks that I really love as well. A photograph of the brilliant Gloria, a former resident of Bristol Aquarium. Unfortunately, Gloria passed away in 2021. Her legacy lives on in the hearts of many. Credit to Bristol Aquarium. Questions About Her Career: 5. Which university did you attend for your bachelor’s degree, & was there any particular reason for your choice in that institution? I went to the University of Plymouth for my undergrad, I did a course in Marine Biology & Coastal Ecology which was absolutely amazing. I loved my course so much. It was incredible to get to meet so many different researchers in the field. That was one of the main reasons I picked Plymouth in the end; all of the lecturers are really active in their fields. It’s such a great city for marine science. It’s known as the Ocean City in the UK because of its connection with Plymouth Sound National Marine Park, which is the first marine park in the UK. It’s also home to the Marine Biological Association, the Ocean Conservation Trust, Plymouth Marine Lab, & loads of independent researchers alongside the university. It’s just this amazing hub of marine activity. I thought it was a perfect place for me. It’s a place I’ve visited quite a lot as a kid as well, on family holidays. Plymouth felt like a very good place for me to be. 6. Which university did you attend for your master’s degree, & was there any particular reason for your choice in that institution? I was very lucky that I got to stay in Plymouth for my master’s degree. I’ve just finished that degree (July 2026). I decided that Plymouth was still the perfect place for me. I absolutely love it here! I’ve got an amazing network of friends & family down here now as well. So, I thought I’d stay. The course is absolutely brilliant, very skills-based. Our coursework wasn’t all writing essays. It was creating parliamentary documents, & things like that. We got a lot of skill development in our assessments, like learning how these different documents need to be formatted, & what sort of content they need. I was able to do some amazing fieldwork as a part of my dissertation as well. It made sense to me to stay where I was, & progress at home. My project was looking at an invasive seaweed species, Worm Wart Weed (Gracilaria vermiculophylla) in UK estuaries, & how that impacts benthic macro-biodiversity. This species hasn’t been studied in the UK very much at all. It’s been around for the last 20 years, but no one’s looked at what it’s doing as an invasive species. A small patch of bristly Worm Wart Weed (Gracilaria vermiculophylla). Freya Longden studied the distribution of this species for her Master’s Degree at the University of Plymouth. Credit to David Fenwick. Part of my fieldwork was going to Kingsbridge Estuary, which was absolutely amazing. I got to do the project in collaboration with South Devon National Landscapes Estuaries Partnership, which is this amazing group that helps manage lots of estuaries around Devon. I got to do lots of sampling in the estuary, which was incredibly muddy. I’m still very grateful that my fieldwork team managed not to get themselves stuck & need to be rescued. It was great! I spent a few days in the estuary speaking to the local community that came by to check out what we were doing. We got to take loads of samples of organisms living in the mud, then recorded the presence & absence of seaweed, which I’ve now been able to use to look at diversity metrics to create a baseline map of its distribution in that part of the estuary so that whoever takes it further in the management scheme can refer back to the original baseline map to see how it's changing. It looks like seaweed impacts community composition. Even though roughly the same sort of species richness was present in the areas with seaweed compared to those without, the actual identity of what those species are was very different. That will obviously have impacts higher up the food chain, like for migratory birds commercial fish species, & any other animal group living around the estuary. It has lots of knock-on effects, which is amazing, & my advisor Melanie Austin was absolutely amazing, & supportive as well. 7. One of your earliest positions was as an Aquarium Assistant with Bristol Aquarium in 2021. How did you enter the field of Aquarium Sciences, & what did you focus on in this position? I started off at Bristol; it was my first sort of big role. I started off volunteering there for about a year, doing things like public talks, specifically with octopuses, sharks, & things like that. I also did things like shadowing the school’s team when they were doing school tours. I got to spend quite a lot of time talking to the husbandry department, seeing what their day-to-day life looked like, & things that they focused on. From there, I got the role of Aquarium Assistant, which is this amazing front-of-house position where you kind of bounce around a few different areas. I’d spend mornings doing admissions, & helping with stocktaking, then I’d run & do school tours or a birthday party, then I’d do these big public talks to a few hundred people. It was a very varied role. Bristol Aquarium is one of the only marine things near Bristol, so I was very grateful to get a role with them there. It was just this amazing experience, meeting people in so many different careers & niches. That’s where I particularly fell in love with engaging with communities. We had quite a lot of community groups from the South West (UK) come to visit us for various workshops. 8. What did you do in your capacity as an intern with the international sea turtle conservation organization Archelon Research Foundation? This was so much fun to do! As part of my undergraduate degree, we got to do a placement year. I spent 3 months in Greece over the summer on Crete with the Rethymo project with Archelon, & it was just amazing. We were doing lots of public interactions, going into local hotels in the area, doing talks to visitors & guests, but we also got to do quite a lot of very practical conservation work. Our teams would survey a big stretch of beach around the north part of Crete, & we were recording any conservation concerns that we were finding, things like tire tracks on the beach near nests, or if we were seeing particular erosion patterns along the coast we were able to report those. We also got to help with the hatching session, which was absolutely amazing. Once we identified the nests, we could mark them, wait for them to hatch, then record how many hatchlings made it to sea. We would look at the eggs inside the nest after hatching, excavate the nest, & look at the different development stages of any eggs that weren’t able to hatch. Some of those could have been because of bacteria in the nest, or not being fertilized in the first place. We got to report all of that data back to Archelon, who was able to track any trends over the last 10 years in the area to see what the turtle population was doing. It was absolutely incredible! It was these 3 amazing months where I got to live in Greece with friends; it was absolutely brilliant. It was very warm, & the accommodation was tents. We were in a campground. I did camp for 3 months, which was definitely a challenge for me. I love camping, but that was a particularly long time to spend on an air bed. But, it was Crete in summer, so it was just absolutely beautiful right by the beach. We got to spend our time off snorkeling & exploring the island. It was a really, really special place. A beautiful photograph of Freya Longden. Freya, with green hair tied back, is wearing a bright blue shirt. She is sat on a sandy beach next to a loggerhead turtle hatchling. Freya studied these creatures during her internship with the Archelon Research Foundation. Credit to Freya Longden. 9. What do you focus on as an Ocean Discovery Ranger with the National Marine Aquarium? How would you describe the facility to those unfamiliar with it? A photograph of the Atlantic Ocean Exhibit in the National Marine Aquarium at Plymouth. Credit to TripAdvisor. The National Marine Aquarium is an aquarium in Plymouth. It’s run by the Ocean Conservation Trust, which is an amazing ocean charity in the UK. It has 3 main focuses that it works with. The first one is the community & public engagement side. That means getting people to the aquarium to come explore, & come to learn with us. We also do skills things like work experience programs, volunteering, snorkelling sessions, things like that. We also do habitat restoration of seagrass meadows around the Southwest. We have this amazing habitats team that researches, restores, & monitors seagrass beds around the area. We also have our advocacy side, which works quite a lot with local MPS, local government, the UK government, & the UN as well, trying to drive marine policy change. It’s an amazing charity. We’re very lucky that we have a lot of resources & facilities to do so many different projects through it. My work is primarily with the engagement team. I run all kinds of activities as part of my role, which is so much fun! I have the most amazing ranger team. Everyone is so incredibly talented, professional, & passionate. I absolutely love doing things like our Oceans For All sessions, which can be sensory sessions, & tours. We have virtual reality headsets that we can take into different settings for people who can’t access the beach as easily. Things like going into residential care homes, & taking them to all kinds of community groups around Devon. It’s so much fun to do! There are so many people who, as a kid, might have gone to the beach, or they might remember swimming in the sea, but they don’t have as easy access to these amazing blue spaces. Being able to bring the ocean to them or for them to come to the aquarium & explore different areas & all the amazing wildlife is really special. I remember there was this amazing woman who hadn’t been to the beach in like 3 decades, & she stepped into the aquarium. I remember seeing her walk in for the first time, & she just immediately started crying. The ocean had been such an important part of her life for so long, but because of health concerns, she wasn’t able to go, so being able to provide that experience, & that connection again for her was a lovely thing to do. She was an absolutely amazing lady to speak to. Questions About Her Advocacy: 10. You have been a champion of accessibility in the field of ocean science. What led you down the road of advocacy? The ocean as I’ve said has always been a very, very big part of my life. I was unfortunately diagnosed with myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME/CFS) about 10 years ago. I’ve been quite limited physically in what I can do. It’s been a really tough journey for a very long time, especially when I was still at school. I had lots of teachers & doctors telling me that I would never make it in marine science because there wasn’t a place for me here. My disability would be too much for anyone to want to deal with professionally, & there just wasn’t space for me. People wouldn’t want to be working with me because of it. I’m quite a stubborn person, so I didn’t take it too well. I was 7 when I decided I wanted to be a marine biologist, & I wasn’t going to let that stop me. I’ve been in a very privileged position where I’ve been able to attend university. I’ve still been able to work, but there are lots of people with ME/CFS & similar conditions who don’t have that luxury, because it can be a very difficult disability to live with. I want to give that back, & show people in similar positions that it hasn’t got to be the barrier that you might be told it is. There are so many different accommodations now, & generally people are a lot more accepting of needing extra support, & being able to provide that extra support. There is a place for everyone in the ocean. The ocean supports all of us, & so we all should have a say. We should all have the chance to engage with it. It doesn’t matter what that engagement looks like, whether it’s small things or big things. If it’s things from home, that’s something I’m a big advocate of; you can be an ocean scientist from home. Citizen science is absolutely incredible, & it is still science. There are so many ways to get involved; you haven’t got to do that traditional path anymore. 11. Why is accessibility important for people in marine science? I think it’s important because so often throughout history, people with disabilities have been overlooked. For a long time, we were shut away, ignored, & silenced. But actually, the ocean is for all of us. It impacts all of us, & quite often people with disabilities have had to adapt to different situations; there are so many skills that we have developed because of our disabilities. These can be super helpful in dealing with marine issues, like our resilience, problem-solving, adaptability, flexibility, & just looking at things from a completely different perspective can come up with so many different ideas that wouldn’t have been thought of without us being there. Even down to smaller things like having chairs with backs on them for support can be so helpful to so many different people, but until someone says it, you don’t think about it. The ocean is very much a place where we need every single person involved to deal with it, for the ocean’s sake, & our own. It’s important that everyone is given that opportunity to be a part of it. 12. How can we, in the ocean profession, make our spaces more accessible? This is a really difficult question because access in general is quite a personal experience, so things that might make something more accessible to me might then be a barrier for someone else. It’s about trying to find that balance to support as many people as possible, & having flexibility to change access if you need to. Even things like adding image descriptions to social media posts can open up a lot more engagement because other people can then access those posts. So often, people are having these conversations about how we can make our different institutions accessible without actually consulting any people with disabilities. If you’re trying to engage a community of people, how can you do that without speaking to them about it? We all have different requirements & different needs, & without those voices, you don’t know which ones are feasible. They might have ideas of what works for them already that can be more easily implemented. It’s about having those conversations, & being honest about what’s practical & possible within your setting as well. There are some accommodations to places that are not practical, whether that’s building age, location, or something similar, but there are lots of other things you could do instead that might make it more accessible. I think there’s this big idea at the moment that if you’ve got a ramp, that immediately makes your entire building accessible to everyone, but there’s no such thing as fully accessible. There’s always going to be a balance between what access facilities you have that become barriers for someone else. It’s also about keeping those discussions open & ongoing, not just a 1-hour Zoom call with someone, then making all the decisions. Things can change over time, & some things need to be an ongoing process rather than a one-off conversation. 13. What has been your proudest moment or biggest triumph thus far? (Note: This interview was conducted on September 23rd, 2026) Definitely finishing my master’s degree. I submitted that last week. To me, that was a big one because I’ve been told quite a lot that I would never finish my GCSEs, or finish my A-levels. I would never get into university. I would never get a degree. I would never get a master’s degree. So, to me, my biggest achievement is finishing school. Being able to say that I have been able to do this, I have done this, & look at all these amazing things I’ve been privileged to do is a big one for me. Also, getting my role at the National Marine Aquarium with the Ocean Conservation Trust, because they were a charity that I’ve followed ever since I was a kid. Being able to be a part of the team, & being part of providing that experience for other people is really special. 14. Across your career, I’m confident that you have encountered your fair share of hurdles & challenges. What is the largest challenge you have faced across your career? How have you overcome it? For me, this really links back to my disability issues. My biggest challenge was probably people’s perceptions of what I could & couldn’t do. During my time at university people would assume that because of my physical challenges, I wouldn’t be able to do fieldwork. By advocating for myself, I was very able to explain what accommodations I’d need, & I was able to still do these things. Taking regular rest breaks, being able to sit down instead of long standing periods in the lab, things like that really do make a difference. I was very lucky that I was able to work with some amazing people. Definitely the biggest challenge that I’ve experienced, & a lot of friends in similar positions have, is people just assuming things rather than asking you. Quite often people don’t want to ask because they don’t want to come across as not being sure what to do. They don’t want to be in a very difficult, uncomfortable, conversation. Unfortunately, a lot of times these conversations are uncomfortable, & that’s okay. It’s okay to feel that way. I was very lucky, especially in my fieldwork. In my master’s, I was the project lead, & I was able to tailor it to what I needed. All the volunteers I had with me during that time also had various physical conditions, so we created this amazing safe place in the fieldwork team, where if someone needed a break, it was no questions asked; we would always stop immediately for however long as needed. It was also in a 30° C (86° F) heat wave, which for the UK is very, very hot. It was in a heat wave, with no shade, in an estuary, so it was quite a physical thing. I think having that space for people to be able to say what they needed is really important. 15. Do you have any advice for disabled individuals looking for careers in marine science, or young, passionate people who have an interest in marine biology? Use that passion! There’s a reason that you love this so much. There is absolutely a place for you in marine science, marine conservation, & the marine field. We need everyone, & you are definitely a part of that. Passion is our drive; it’s the thing that makes us want to do what we do. Take opportunities as they come, even if they’re not necessarily the thing you’re most interested in. You can still learn a lot from it; you can get a lot of skills from it. It’s also okay to say no to opportunities. That is something I learned quite early on in my career. There were things I was getting involved in that I didn’t particularly enjoy, & things that were offered to me that didn’t fit how I was thinking or feeling. They were too much at the time. It’s okay to say no. So often we are told to take every single thing that comes to us, because it’s such a competitive field. It’s okay to take a step back, whether it’s for your own mental well-being, or it’s just not the right fit for you. If you ask for accommodations & try to advocate for yourself, & get some sort of pushback from that, maybe that’s not the environment that’s best for you. It’s okay to say no to things. 16. Do you have any final words about your work, your advocacy journey, science communication, ocean literacy, accessibility, or the beauty of the sea? The ocean is such an amazing place. It connects all of us. We have this amazing habitat, resource, & space. It’s really special to me to be able to do all the things that I’ve done, & hopefully inspire other people to be a part of that journey, in whatever form that looks like. Whether that’s citizen science at home, signing petitions, sending emails to MP’s, or picking up a bit of litter on your walk to school or work. You haven’t got to do these big dramatic acts for you to be a conservationist or involved. Simple things go a really long way, especially if everyone is able to get on board with that. If you have a bit of self-doubt that you’re not doing enough, you absolutely are. Just caring is an amazing place to start. A photograph of Freya Longden in the field. Freya is crouched in an estuary. She has green hair and glasses, and is wearing dark coloured waterproofs (coveralls). She is sampling the estuary mud using a quadrat and sediment corer. There is a white tub next to her with extra equipment like sample pots inside. Credit to Freya Longden. Directories / Credits https://www.linkedin.com/in/freya-longden-77053325a?utm_source=share_via&utm_content=profile&utm_medium=member_ios Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of the beautiful, brilliant, oxygen-poor Baltic Sea. Credit to pvproductions via Magnific. The area of the central Baltic Sea covering (as of 2024) approximately 70,000 square kilometers is considered the largest human-induced oxygen dead zone. The second largest is located in the Gulf of Mexico, yet it is 3 times smaller than the largest one. However, despite this fact, few people know of its existence, and the importance of preventing it from expanding. Here, we will break down the causes behind the formation of oxygen-depleted areas and go through the consequences that follow. Hypoxia in relation to marine environments is a term used to refer to depletion of oxygen levels in a water body. The threshold level of hypoxia applies when the dissolved oxygen (DO) drops below 2 mg/L, which prevents marine life from living, in turn causing the formation of ‘dead zones’. In these areas, fish along with benthic organisms (organisms which live on the ocean floor) are unable to live due to insufficient oxygen levels. Mobile organisms such as fish are able to flee to oxygen-rich areas, while sessile organisms such as anemones suffocate. One of the natural causes for hypoxia to occur is stratification of the water basin. The Baltic Sea is highly stratified with little mixing of the water, limiting the exchange of oxygen from the higher layers to the bottom one. This, combined with the sea being closed-off (which impedes the inflow of oxygen-rich waters from the North Sea) and the large river runoff, this paralyzes the oxygen levels near the sea floor. Only sporadic saltwater inflow that occurs mainly in winter (Major Baltic Inflows MBIs) are able to ventilate the deepest parts of the sea. Oxygen depletion can also result from eutrophication, which is caused by the excess of nutrients and organic matter increasing productivity and organic matter content that sinks to the sea floor. With time, depleting oxygen levels and decomposition of organic matter shift the processes from aerobic (using oxygen) to anaerobic (without oxygen) which, in turn, leads to less efficient decomposition and increased deposition and accumulation of organic matter on the sea floor. The accumulation of organic matter encourages microbial activity and the consumption of dissolved oxygen in bottom waters. A swirling emerald algal bloom in the Baltic Sea. This photograph was taken on August 15th, 2020. Credit to SciTechDaily. Due to excessive nutrient inputs since the 1950s, eutrophication in the Baltic Sea has increased. Localized declines of dissolved oxygen levels were noted in the Baltic as early as the 1930s but the hypoxia became widespread 30 years later. Globally, the number of dead zones has doubled each decade since the 1960s. The volume of the area with hypoxia in the central Baltic Sea increased from 15% to 26% since 1960. This trend will be amplified with global warming, increasing the dead zone. The table below shows the changes in hypoxic (red) and anoxic (black) areas in the deep waters in the Baltic Proper over the years. The graphic clearly shows the expanding problem of oxygen depletion and areas unable to support marine life. Credit: J. Carstensen et al. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2014. There are different forms of eutrophication-induced hypoxia. The most common one, responsible for half of the known dead zones, occurs once a year. It’s caused by the spring phytoplankton blooms and appears in the summer when the stratification is strongest and the water is warmest, lasting until autumn. Once the oxygen level returns to normal, there is visible recolonization of marine life to some extent. A quarter of hypoxic zones are caused by periodic oxygen depletion happening more often, however it seems to be less severe, usually lasting from days to weeks. This type is represented by waters like the York River in the Chesapeake Bay. Episodic oxygen depletion, happening less than once a year, is the initial sign of reaching a critical point of eutrophication, which then tips the system into hypoxia. Hypoxia increases in time and space, especially in systems prone to stratification, where oxygen depletion may be persistent - this lasting form of oxygen depletion accounts for about 8% of dead zones, including the one in the Baltic Sea. The progression of hypoxia starts with a pattern seen in eutrophic systems when enhancement of deposition of organic matter promotes microbial growth and respiration, causing a greater demand for oxygen. With the growing oxygen depletion, mass mortalities of benthic animals occur. Then, when hypoxia becomes seasonal or periodic, animal populations cycle between being abundant and nonexistent. With time and persistent oxygen depletion the final phase takes place - the hypoxic zone expands, turning into anoxic waters and in turn generating hydrogen sulfide. Hypoxia alters sedimentary habitats as well, disrupting nitrification and denitrification, causing ammonia, ammonium, and phosphorus to accumulate in the sediments. It is estimated that in the persistently hypoxic dead zones in the Baltic Sea, there are around 264,000 metric tons of carbon of annually missing biomass, which account for about 30% of total Baltic secondary production. As a result, the secondary production has doubled outside of the dead zones. Oxygen consumption rates, with one source being the respiration of zooplankton and higher trophic levels, have substantially increased. Paired with organic matter sinking to the sea floor, ineffective ventilation of deep water, slower decomposition under hypoxic and anoxic conditions and remaining oxygen being consumed by the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, the oxygen concentration is severely low. Nutrient concentrations, like intensified nitrogen fixation, fuel cyanobacteria blooms, which in turn cause even higher oxygen depletion. All those factors outweigh the ventilation and exchange of the deep waters in the sea. The present conditions in the Baltic Proper make it highly unlikely that dissolved oxygen levels higher than 2 mg/L will retain for extended periods of time. The consequences of those oxygen dead zones follow a pattern revolving around marine mortality and disruption of the food web and ecosystem. This affects aquaculture and fisheries as well, limiting the catch numbers of commercially fished species. Hypoxia and anoxia are one of the most widespread human-induced environmental issues in marine environments, influencing habitat loss and harmful algal blooms. Managing the nutrient runoff from rivers is crucial in preventing or slowing down the expansion of hypoxic areas. Although the Baltic Sea has the largest oxygen dead zone in the world, there are many ecosystems struggling with similar conditions. It is highly important to note the changes in the ecosystems and prevent these dead zones from forming early on. A photograph of the still Baltic Sea. Credit to Zeiss Photography. Citations / Directories Citation No. 1: Spreading Dead Zones and Consequences for Marine Ecosystems, Robert J. Diaz, Rutger Rosenberg Citation No. 2: How oxygen deficiency in the Baltic Sea proper has spread and worsened: The role of ammonium and hydrogen sulphide, Carl Rolff, Jakob Walve, Ulf Larsson, Ragnar Elmgren Citation No. 3: Recently Accelerated Oxygen Consumption Rates Amplify Deoxygenation in the Baltic Sea, H. E. Markus Meier, Germo Väli, Michael Naumann, Kari Eilola, Claudia Frauen Citation No. 4: Near seafloor methane flux in the world’s largest human-induced dead zone is regulated by sediment accumulation rate, M. Ketzer, C. Stranne, M. Rahmati-Abkenar, S. Shahabi-Ghahfarokhi, L. Jaeger, M.A.G. Pivel, S. Josefsson, L. Zillén Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of Lewis Gibson, creator of the oceanic analog horror web series Santa Rosa Aquarium. Credit to Lewis Gibson. Recently, our head writer interviewed extraordinary Oceanic Horror Producer & Creator of Santa Rosa Aquarium, Lewis Gibson (SquakProductions)! Lewis Gibson (SquakProductions) is an analog horror producer best known for his web series Santa Rosa Aquarium, which focuses on a mysterious fictional aquarium where people go missing, the animals act strange, & the staff acts stranger. In today’s interview, we sit down with Lewis to discuss his passion for aquariums & the sea, his analog horror journey, his short film Country Lanes, his web series Santa Rosa Aquarium, & his advice to aspiring analog horror producers. Before delving into today’s comprehensive 19-question interview, please note that everything said has been edited for clarity, & that the opinions of our interviewee do not necessarily reflect the opinions & values of our organization. With that being said, let us delve into the contents of the interview! Questions About His Passion: 1. What sparked your passion for aquariums & all things ocean? It started when I was younger. I think I watched Finding Nemo every single day until I was about 7. I indoctrinated myself into it subconsciously. I used to visit aquarium shops all the time. There’s still one local to me that I visit quite a lot. I still keep fish now to a smaller extent. I think that started things off, growing up in that environment. 2. Was there any particular book, person, place, thing, or media franchise which contributed to sparking your passion? There’s a conservation aquarium sort of about an hour from where I am called The Deep. It’s the only place in the country that has sawfish. I used to go there when I was younger, that was interesting. That was the first time I would ever see sharks up close, that’s a really vivid memory in my mind. 3. What sparked your passion for ocean & analog horror? No one really thinks to do it. I think the ocean is such an under-utilized concept. It’s terrifying. It’s an environment in which people aren’t built to survive. We are no longer in our own habitat. We’re in a place where if you look down, you don’t know what is beneath you. I don’t want to say that it hasn’t been done before, because I have seen one about a deep-sea trench that helped inspire me. That was terrifying. It used a lot of CGI. It’s untapped potential. Analog horror has been funnelled into these scenarios all about people that look strange. It’s often the same tropes that are repeated. I think the ocean is a nice change of pace. 4. How did you get the name “SquakProductions”? It’s gone to the point where I don’t know. It’s like 5 years old. In high school, I had this friend group, & I think someone made a typo, & they kept repeating it. It turned into an inside joke. When I went to make my YouTube channel, I wasn’t expecting anything to happen from it. I thought, I’ll use that because it’ll be funny. I’m at the point where I’m too big to change it. I’ve sort of dug myself into a hole, & now I’m stuck with SquakProductions. 5. What is your favourite marine or terrestrial animal? Personally? The giant squid! It’s not even necessarily anything to do with the squid itself, but more the history of it. How it went from a myth, something you’d compare to Bigfoot or the Loch Ness Monster, something people would talk about seeing then get called crazy for it, to something which exists. It’s not unheard of but, you know, most myths tend to be disproven over time, but this one is one that is a real thing that exists. It’s not anything to do with the squid itself. As fascinating as they are, I think they are up to 13 meters long, it’s just the story & the history behind the giant squid. A photograph of an 8-foot (2.43 meters) long Giant Squid (Architeuthis dux) caught swimming off the coast of Japan. This giant squid seems to be molting. Credit to Yosuke Tanaka. Questions About His Work: 6. How did you begin producing Analog Horror videos? I started in early February (2026). I’ve always been interested in horror as media. I think the retro analog aspect of it is something that I really do enjoy. I think my favourite horror film of all time is Sinister, I’m not sure if you’ve ever seen it, but in there the main character finds tapes which have an analog feel to them. That definitely helped. I think it’s a good entry point. Up until today, I made everything on my phone. I couldn’t shoot an hour & a half feature film with no budget. But with analog horror, if you have an idea, you can make it. I think that’s what makes it such a good way to get involved & try to make something. It gets rid of the excuse of “I don’t have a budget”. 7. You began producing Analog Horror in February, 2026. What avenues of Analog Horror did you explore before finally beginning Santa Rosa Aquarium? I messed around with it for a while. At first I didn’t have a series in mind. I was just experimenting with classic analog horror techniques. Stuff like the early Mandela Catalogue or emergency warning broadcasts. There’s someone in your house & it’s not quite right, that kind of thing. I wasn’t focused on story, I wanted to try & work on the technique. The style, the audio, the fuzzy background noise, & the robotic voice. I messed around with that for a while, making one-off videos until I realized people are getting a bit tired of this now. Then, I messed with some body-horror type stuff, because I wanted to show rather than say if that makes sense. I did my short-lived sensory deprivation surgery series (Dr. Sigbon’s Sensory Deprivation Surgery), which some people still think is good, but I think it’s limited. There’s nowhere I could go with that. I might return to it one day, but I don’t have any plans to, because I think it’s more of a concept than a series. After the release of Invincible season 4, I thought “Here’s a TV show I like, I like making analog horror, I can put 2 & 2 together here & I can do both!” I tried to do an analog horror based on Invincible, which worked well for a while. I think the problem with that is I can only work within that universe. I can’t add things into it very much. I’ve got to abide by the rules of that, which some people did enjoy. It’s why I probably won’t go back to doing something based off a pre-existing brand again. Once that season ended, people had sort of gotten over it. I thought I should move on as well, I was getting bored of it, & I was running out of ideas. Time for something fresh. I messed around with the short film (Country Lanes), & then I started making Santa Rosa Aquarium. 8. Walk us through your short horror film “Country Lanes”. What does this title focus on? What inspired you to create it? What was your creative process for an in-person film? Have you ever watched the creep films? That was a big inspiration. Not necessarily anything to do with the plot, or anything to do with the actual substance, but just in terms of the scenario. There’s nothing supernatural going on, it’s just a weird guy. I feel like people are so underutilized in horror, which sounds strange. Think of most horror, it could resemble a person, but there’s always something supernatural going on, like they’ve been brought back from the dead. I think people are so scary in general, & that is not taken advantage of nearly as much as it could be. The best part is, it’s very cheap to make. I don’t need to make a giant monster, I can just do it myself, which is what I did. I played the antagonist in that film. That was an experience as well, it was me & 2 friends that I managed to get to do it as well, partly because I can’t drive & one of them needs to drive the car. It’s definitely the longest I’ve worked on any individual video. In terms of inspiration for the story, there’s a very old YouTube video called No Through Road. It’s basically just 5 teenagers driving around rural England in a car. The radio starts to glitch out, starts playing creepy music, then lights start to flicker, & in one of the flickers, a man is sitting in the middle of the road. He starts attacking the car while creepy music plays in the background. It sounds really basic, & it is, but what’s so well done is the execution. As someone who lives in England, the way they acted was so authentic. I think the first five minutes are just them talking to each other in the car. The way they acted was so authentic that when a lot of people see it for the first time they ask if it’s real. That was a big inspiration of mine in terms of the story is in a rural English village, driving on a road. 9. What is Santa Rosa Aquarium? How would you describe it for those who are not familiar? Santa Rosa Aquarium is a fictional aquarium, contrary to popular belief. I know at the start of the series, a lot of people were asking if it was real. They were like, I live in Santa Rosa, I’ve never seen this before, blah blah blah. You know what? I’ll take that as a compliment! If you think it’s real, it means I’m making it look real enough, so I’m happy with that. It’s a fictional aquarium set in 1980s America where people go missing, the animals act strange, & the staff acts stranger. I would give more of an overview of the story, but it’s currently unraveling, so I can’t give too much away because I don’t know where I will be up to by the time it releases. I don’t want to give too much away apart front what I’ve published up until today, pretty much. The logo of Santa Rosa Aquarium. Credit to SquakProductions. 10. What sorts of marine life occupy the Santa Rosa Aquarium? In the world of the Santa Rosa Aquarium, what is the Mermaid Program? There’s a mix of everything really. There’s beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas), they’ve got their own dedicated tank. There’s river dolphins (Inia geoffrensis), which are slightly infamous within my sort of fanbase. There’s sea lions, jellyfish, starfish, there’s a whole bunch of things. A photograph of an Amazon River Dolphin leaping out of the water in a whorl of water. Credit to wildlife photographer Kevin Schafer. The good part is I haven’t fully published maps yet that are complete, which means if I have a cool idea, I can put it in there & no one can tell me I can’t. About the mermaid program, if you’ve been to aquariums before, sometimes they’ll have mermaid performances. People will dress up, they’ll put a mermaid tail on, & they’ll dive around in the tank. That always terrified me, because the idea of being trapped in an aquarium with a bunch of sharks & that sort of thing whilst not being able to move your legs separately, & being stuck in a big mermaid costume is scary. I wanted to find a way to utilize that. I think the mermaid program is the most popular episode on TikTok, it hit one million likes a few weeks ago. 11. What are the primary exhibits of Santa Rosa Aquarium? What are Sectors A, B, & C? That depends on how you define primary, because there’s primary in universe in terms of the biggest tanks, & primary in terms of what’s relevant to the story. I’ll start with what’s relevant to the story. There are river dolphin lakes. Obviously, river dolphins are a freshwater species, so I thought why not put them in an outdoor lake? I thought that was an interesting idea. Another thing that scares me is zip lines. Not zip lines in general, but the ones that go over large bodies of water or between mountains. I thought, well, how about we have a zip line that goes over the dolphin lake? A photograph of Sector A of the fictional Santa Rosa Aquarium. In universe, Sector A houses the outdoor entertainments of the facility. Specifically, it houses the infamous dolphin zipline. Credit to SquakProductions. Then there’s the beluga tank, beluga whales are definitely interesting because of their whole echolocation thing. That’s underutilized. I’m sort of using them in a way similar to sirens or mermaids. The belugas will sort of speak to people. Obviously that’s not real, so you’ve got to suspend your disbelief a little bit there. I can’t say why just yet, that definitely won’t be revealed for a long time. I’d say the primary exhibit in terms of story is Deep Blue, which is supposed to be a recreated slice of the ocean with a few surprises. It also contains my one & only retcon. I first had it at 2 million gallons large, which sounds really big, until I did a little bit more research & I found out that 2 million gallons actually isn’t that big, so I upped it to 7 million gallons, using the excuse of they got more funding & the investors really liked it. No one seemed to notice or care. I’m going to say I got away with that retcon. A photograph of the Kelp Maze in the fictional world of the Santa Rosa Aquarium. The Kelp Maze is housed in Sector B. Credit to SquakProductions. 12. What made an aquarium, & Santa Rosa, CA, ideal locations for an analog horror series? I’ll disclose the Santa Rosa thing first, that is a very short & anticlimactic story. I didn’t know it was a real place. I’ve now leaned into it, knowing it is. I just needed an American city-sounding name. I wanted to do San Diego at first, but that’s already a big thing, so I thought I’d mess around with that, change it around, & I ended up with Santa Rosa. That’s when I ended up with people in my comments, like, I’m from Santa Rosa, & I didn’t know this was real, I’ve never been there before. I was like, Hey, it’s fine. I didn’t know it was real either! I’m only just learning you exist. People are always very disappointed when they learn that. They always expect some sort of childhood story of exactly why, something like I visited Santa Rosa when I was 5, but that never happened. I only learned it was real a month ago (July 2026), & now I’m sort of stuck with it. I’m sticking with it. To answer your question about the aquarium itself, I think they’re also very under-utilized, arguably more than the ocean itself. A lot of people think it’s unrealistic that this stuff would happen. In future installments it gets a little more unrealistic, & a little more out there. But at the very start, it’s not that far-fetched. You’ve got to think about what happened at places like SeaWorld in the 1990s. There was an Orca, Tilikum, which killed 3 people, which sounds a lot like what happens in my series, so suddenly it’s not that far-fetched. You put animals in a place where they’re not supposed to be, & then all of a sudden things can start going wrong. 13. Walk us through the process of creating an installment of Santa Rosa Aquarium. What is your creative process? I very, very rarely have several episodes planned out at once. What I like to do is I’ll have a plot point, I need to get the story from A to B. Then I’ll give myself 2 or 3 videos to get there, & I’ll figure out what I want to do with that. I don’t like restricting myself. I could take a month & I could write every single episode. I don’t want to do that because the number of times I will be mid-episode, & think, I’ve got a good idea, let’s do this. I like to take it a few episodes at a time. When I do get around to making individual episodes, if I need a voice actor, I will usually use my Discord to find them. I have a sort of roster of voice actors that I like to use on the regular. You’ve probably noticed there are a few recurring voices, especially PG, I love that guy. He’s my main voice actor for most of the training taped. I’ll use one if I’ve already got them. If not, I might put out a post on my TikTok or Discord saying I need someone with these specifications, please message me. Then I’ll get about a hundred messages, & I will try to check as many as I can. Unfortunately, I end up leaving a lot of people undelivered, which I’m sure annoys many people, but there’s just too many requests at some point. Then I’ll write my scripts out. I like to do that all myself, which I think helps. A lot of people ask if they can come on as an extra writer, which sounds good in theory, but then I lose that creative control. I know roughly where the story’s going throughout all the volumes. If I don’t have that full control, I worry that it won’t come out the way I want it to. I do everything myself pretty much, apart from the voice acting. If I could change my voice, I promise you I would do my voice acting myself as well. Then I’ll send the scripts out to the voice actors. While I wait, I’ll sort of edit any picture I want to use, you know, if I need to make a picture of a building, exhibit, or logo. I’ll spend my time making that using photo editing software. Then once I get my scripts from the wonderful voice actors, I will put the audio in. I will make it sound terrible, which is good because if people’s microphones are not good, I’m still going to give them a shot because it’s easier to make okay audio sound terrible than it is to make okay audio sound amazing. I will put all the text on screen, & I’ll put everything together. I’ll put the grainy VHS filters onto it, add some static to the background, post it, & call it a day. 14. How many installments do you currently have in the series, & how many do you intend to produce total? (Note: This interview was conducted on August 22nd, 2026). I’m up to 13 parts. I like to do them in sort of one-minute episodes, & release them one at a time. 8 of those make up volume 1, & the rest are part of the currently releasing volume 2. I don’t like to do it all at once & release it because then I don’t know what people are thinking. I would not have invested so much time into Santa Rosa Aquarium Volume 1 if I didn’t know people were going to like it, do I like to release it piece by piece. I may change that once people have got a bit more faith in me. I release them on TikTok & YouTube. In terms of plans for the future, I’m halfway through releasing volume 2 right now. I have plans for 5 volumes all together, plus, a 3D rendered short film which will be around 7 minutes long involving someone diving into Deep Blue. A non-official piece of fan-art showcasing a diver in the Deep Blue Exhibit in the world of Santa Rosa Aquarium. The oceanic analog horror series has built a loyal fanbase, with numerous pieces of fan-art such as this. Credit to The Nice Octopus. 5 volumes is the plan, because that’s how many ideas I have that would be unique without me saying “You thought this was bad? Well something worse has happened, & it’s getting worse!” I don’t want it to be one of those things where I’m continuing it for the sake of continuing it. I’ve got 5 very distinct volumes laid out. 15. What are your plans for the future of the Santa Rosa Aquarium series? I’ve got big plans! I bought a PC today (August 22nd, 2026). This is my first time using it. Obviously, that ups my production value substantially compared to my iPhone. I’m in the process of trying to learn Blender so I can have some found footage style installments, which helps with the immersion. I want to show that I can go bigger & better. Once I figure out how the hell Blender works, hopefully I can do that. I did a little bit of work on it today, I figured out how to make a basic cube into a rectangle, & I nearly cheered when I did that. I’ve got a long way to go before I make a realistic aquarium environment. 16. Across your work in oceanic horror, what has been your proudest moment or greatest triumph? Appearing on a podcast is definitely one of them, it’s a first time for me. Other than that, I would probably say, the views & the likes, they’re great, it keeps people watching & shows people are interested, but for me, I love watching people talk about the episodes in YouTube videos, & make theory episodes. Anyone can scroll past a video, click, & press like, but when people are taking hours, days, or even weeks in some cases, to make a theory video, it’s so flattering. It helps me remember that every number that comes up on my videos is a real person who genuinely cares about what they’re seeing. It’s so fascinating that people are so interested in something I came up with on a whim. 17. Across your time working in oceanic horror, I’m confident that you have encountered your fair share of hurdles & challenges. What is the largest challenge you’ve faced? How have you overcome it? There’s 2 sort of big ones in the short-term & long-term. The short-term is trying to tell a story while I’m limited in production capability. I was doing everything from my iPhone, so I can’t make a big animation of a dolphin jumping out of the water & grabbing this little boy off a zipline. I’ve got to imply that. I have to use my words to try & scare people rather than outright showing it, so that’s been a big challenge, one hopefully I can overcome soon now that I’ve got a production quality boost. That one’s always been a struggle, because people these days on social media need constant action. They need something going on. They’ve got to start seeing the dolphin bite people, or someone start drowning. They’ve got to see it themselves, but I couldn’t do that. So, I had to try & keep people invested by writing a story. Which is to say, the fact that people are still interested now shows that I successfully managed to do that by some miracle. In terms of long-term challenges, it’s balancing the realism with the horror. In my eyes, if something’s not possible, it’s not quite as scary. I understand that some of the incidents that happen at Santa Rosa Aquarium couldn’t happen. In one of them, someone gets sucked into a filtration pipe. I had someone in my comments saying “I work in an aquarium, & the filtration pipes are way too small for anyone to get sucked into it.” If you’re coming into it with that belief, you’re coming in to criticize me. You’re looking for an inconsistency to pluck at. You’ve got to suspend your disbelief slightly. I guarantee this is the same person who could watch paranormal activity & get scared by the ghost. I’m sure you can let your mind believe that maybe a filtration pipe was a foot wider than it would be normally. I’ve got to try to balance that realism with the horror, which I’ll admit I’ve still not done perfectly. I’m still working on that. It’s about trying to find that balance. If it’s too scary, it’s not plausible. I can’t write that 10 people died in the aquarium in one hour, because then obviously it would have been shut down. I’ve got to make it plausible. Yet then, I can’t have 1 person hurt their foot fifty years ago. That’s not scary. I’ve got to find a balance, which I’m still trying to do, but it makes it more difficult when some people are so called experts, & are coming in trying to pluck me apart to find inconsistencies. 18. Do you have any advice for aspiring ocean horror authors, video creators, writers, or voice actors? I don’t want to sit here preaching & giving advice as if I’ve made it, because the truth is I’m just getting started. My advice is, if you have an idea, whether it be a story, an analog horror, or anything, just do it. Chances are it might be terrible, it might be bad, but a bad concept will be a concept every time because that bad result actually exists. A concept in your mind, no one else can see that. So, until you put that onto paper, a word document, or into a video software, no one’s going to know. You’ve got to find a balance. If it’s too plausible, it’s probably not scary. If it’s too scary, it’s probably not plausible. I still haven’t found it myself, but the longer you go on, the closer to the middle you will eventually be. 19. Do you have any final words about Santa Rosa Aquarium, the beauty of aquariums, analog horror, or the wonder of the sea? You’ve got to remember animals aren’t people. Animals don’t abide by the same principles of morality that we do. So, saying that animals are evil, just because of something they do, can be very damaging. Animals will act on instinct. Pointing at animals as evil can cause terrible damage. As great as the film Jaws (1975) is, it caused irreversible damage to sharks. There is a reason that the animals in Santa Rosa Aquarium act the way they do, there’s more to it than just evil animals acting evil. A photograph of Lewis Gibson, creator of the oceanic analog horror web series Santa Rosa Aquarium. Credit to Lewis Gibson. Directories / Credits https://youtube.com/@squakproductions?si=NAHS_X9ileZpAZf4 https://www.instagram.com/squakproductions?igsi=NTc4MTIwNjQ2YQ== Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A distinguished photograph of Dr. Robert T. Paine out in the field, holding a sea star. Credit to the University of Washington. This article is part of our Marine Hall of Distinction collection. In this special collection, we discuss the marine scientists who we feel have contributed the most to marine biology & oceanography. We do this to commemorate these marine scientists & show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. Today's marine scientist is Robert T. Paine. Robert T. Paine was an American marine ecologist, zoologist, & author. He is best known for coining the term “keystone species”, a phenomenon which occurs when a species is important to an ecosystem than its relative abundance might imply. In today’s article, we will delve into his formative years, education, personal life, career, achievements, accomplishments, & awards. With that being said, let’s plunge into the extraordinary life & career of Robert T. Paine! His Formative Years & Education Robert Treat Paine III was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on April 13th, 1933. He is the grandson of Robert Treat Paine, the Founding Father, Revolutionary, & first Attorney General of Massachusetts. He was born to Robert Treat Paine Jr., & Barbara Birkhoff. His father was a curator of Japanese Art at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. He is well known for his role in art restoration efforts in post-war Japan, & for his book The Art and Architecture of Japan (1958), which he co-authored with Alexander Soper. His mother was an accomplished writer & photographer, & daughter of the extraordinary Dutch-American mathematician George David Birkhoff. His curiosity for the natural world was sparked at a young age. As a toddler, he enjoyed observing ants in his families driveway. As he grew older, he began exploring the wooded areas 30 miles west of Cambridge, hunting for earthworms, salamanders, mushrooms, & the like. He also enjoyed birdwatching, growing to be respected as naturalist of birds by the local Bostonian Birdwatching community of the day. This love of birding remained until his death. It is said that he could identify a bird not only by its visual markings, but by its song. Before leaving for the prestigious Harvard University, he decided to venture on a summer road trip that would ultimately change his life, & his relationship with the natural world. Driving roughly 4,400 miles from Boston to Alaska, he spent the summer working in salmon canneries. He learned numerous maritime, exploration, & adventuring skills which would go on to serve him well in his career as an ecologist. Upon returning, he earned his bachelor’s degree in palaeontology from Harvard University in 1954 under advisor Ernst Mayr. After a 2 year stint in the US Army, he began graduate school at the University of Michigan. After taking zoology courses under the late great Frederick E. Smith, Robert found his true passion, & switched majors to zoological studies, with Smith as his academic advisor. For his dissertation, he decided to study brachiopods in Bay Mouth Bar, Franklin County, Florida, on the Gulf Coast. According to his own account, the young Robert arrived with “few funds, no boat, and no place to live”. Thankfully, the field station director of Florida State University Coastal & Marine Lab, Dr. Harold Humm, took him in, giving him free lodging & a boat to do research with. There, he studied the ecology, range, & habitat of local brachiopods. Later in his career, he would return to Bay Mouth Bar with a fleet of graduate students & post-docs to research the local marine life. Finishing his P.hD in 1961, he took a post-doctoral fellowship at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Shortly thereafter he moved up the West Coast to join the faculty at the University of Washington, where he would stay for the next 36 years. His Personal Life & Career Upon joining the University of Washington, he began studying community ecology, with an experimentalist philosophy. Over the course of his career, he would contribute a multitude of concepts to the field of community ecology with his collaborators. He is credited as one of the earliest scientists to study vertical zonation in the intertidal zone. Above all, he is best known for his 1966 paper coining the term “Keystone Species”, to describe the relationship between ochre sea stars (Pisaster ochraceus) & California mussels (Mytilus californianus) in the intertidal zone. This term Keystone Species is used to refer to species in an ecosystem which are more ecologically important than their relative abundance might suggest. What this means in practice is that they sustain a vital component of the local ecosystem, & are integral for ecosystem health. A photograph of (from left) Brian Silliman, Robert T. Paine, & Peter Kareiva. The trio of scientists are in Patagonian Argentina, surveying the coast. Credit to Brian Silliman. At the age of 65, he formally retired from the University of Washington, being honored with a retiree party filled with collaborators, fellow faculty, & students alike. Unfortunately, Dr. Robert Treat Paine III, affectionately known as Bob, passed away on June 13th, 2016, at the age of 83 as a result of acute myeloid leukemia. He was survived by his daughters Anne, Susan, & Nancy, along with his former wife Alice E. Coleman. He is fondly remembered by family, colleagues, & former students alike for his remarkable dedication, enthusiasm, energy, whimsical unseriousness, & enduring body of work. Over the course of his career, he was well known as an ethical, just scientist. He was revered for his efficiency & parsimonious approach, with a high science-per-dollar ratio. Robert T. Paine will continue to influence new scientists for generations to come. A photograph of Robert T. Paine with a pile of purple sea stars (Pisaster ochraceus), surrounded by kelp on Tatoosh Island. Credit to Anne Paine. His Awards, Achievements, & Accomplishments He coined 2 of the most important terms in community ecology, keystone species & trophic cascade. The former refers to a species having a disproportionately large ecological impact, larger than its relative abundance implies. The latter refers to an ecological interaction where upper trophic levels (predators) affect lower trophic levels. The impact of these 2 terms cannot be understated, as they both influence the field of ecology dramatically. Over the course of his illustrious career, he received fellowships, awards, or similar honours from the following institutions: Lerner Marine Fellowship, American Museum of Natural History Fellowship (1959); Sverdrup Postdoctoral Fellowship, Scripps Institution of Oceanography (1961-1962); Third Tansley Lecturer, British Ecological Society (1979); AAAS Fellow (1980); John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship (1981-1982); Robert H. MacArthur Award, Ecological Society of America (1983); National Academy of Sciences (1986); the Ecology Institute Prize (Germany) (1989); honorary doctorate, Colby College (1996); visiting lectureship, British Ecological Society (1996); Sewall Wright Award, American Society of Naturalists (1997), American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1999); and the International Cosmos Prize (2013). We thank the National Academy of Sciences for putting this list together. He was honored in Serengeti Rules (2016) by author Sean Carroll, with a chapter dedicated to his work on trophic webs. He established a long-term research facility on Tatoosh Island in Northern Washington in collaboration with the local Makah Indigenous Peoples. He led the Ecological Society of America as vice president from 1977 to 1979, before being promoted to president. He sprouted one of the most fruitful academic families in the last half of the 20th century. He personally trained 40 graduate researchers as well as post-doctoral fellows. These researchers went on to train students of their own, who trained students of their own, growing his academic family to hundreds of individuals. An illustration of Robert T. Paine’s sprawling academic family tree at all of the scientific lives he touched. This chart was illustrated at the time of his retirement by Myriam Kohn. Credit to Myriam Kohn. Directories / Credits Citation 1: “Biographical Memoirs: Robert T. Paine (1933 to 2016)”, Written by Mary E. Power, James A. Estes, Peter Kareiva, Simon Levin, Jane Lubchenco, & Stephen Palumbi, & Published in 2018. Credit to the National Academy of Sciences. https://www.nasonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Paine_Robert.pdf Citation 2: “The “Keystone Species” Concept That Transformed Ecology”, Written by James MacDonald, & Published on June 30th, 2016. Credit to JSTOR Daily. https://daily.jstor.org/how-the-keystone-species-concept-transformed-ecology/ Citation 3: “Remembering a ‘Keystone’ Ecologist, Robert Paine”, Written by Andrew C. Revkin, & Published on July 14th, 2016, at 2:20 PM. Credit to the New York Times. https://archive.nytimes.com/dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/remembering-a-keystone-ecologist-robert-paine/ Citation 4: “Robert Treat Paine III (1933 to 2016)”, Written by Mary E. Power, James A. Estes, Peter Kareiva, Simon Levin, Jane Lubchenco, & Stephen Palumbi, & Published on June 19th, 2017. Published by the National Academy of Sciences. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1706692114 Citation 5: “In Memoriam: Robert Treat Paine III (1933–2016), An Outsized American Naturalist”, Written by Brian R. Silliman, Peter Kareiva, & Catherine A. Pfister, & Published on November 4th, 2016. Published by The University of Chicago Press Journals. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/689447 Citation 6: “The Man Whose Dynasty Changed Ecology”, Written by Ed Yong, & Published on January 16th, 2013. Published by Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-man-whose-dynasty-changed-ecology/ Citation No. 7: “Robert Paine, Ecologist Who Found ‘Keystone Species,’ Dies at 83”, Written by Sam Roberts, & Published on June 17th, 2016. Published by the New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/18/science/robert-paine-ecologist-who-found-keystone-species-dies-at-83.html?_r=0 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Introduction For thousands of years, ocean currents have flowed around the globe, influencing weather patterns and shaping ecosystems as they go. This global conveyor belt has a “motor” called the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) that drives our currents, but climate change is weakening it. It may be surprising that global warming impacts ocean currents, but the warmer our planet gets, the more likely our dynamic ocean and weather patterns will shift. In this article we’ll explain what the AMOC is, how warming temperatures affect it, and what this means for ocean currents, people, and our planet. Oceanic current map developed from satellite data. Photo Credit: Benjamin Storer / University of Rochester The Disaster: A Weakening AMOC To understand the implications of a weakening AMOC, it helps first to understand how our ocean currents normally function. Surface currents are driven primarily by wind while deeper currents are driven by salinity and temperature. Both of these factors can influence the density of water which creates the pressure changes that drive deeper currents. This is known as thermohaline circulation. Because of these influences, our ocean currents are able to travel around the planet, bringing water from the equator to the poles and back. The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation specifically refers to the system of currents in the Atlantic Ocean that carries warm equatorial water northward and colder water southward. A map of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. Warm equatorial waters travel northward, bringing heat with them. Cold, salty water sinks in the North Atlantic, ultimately powering ocean currents worldwide. Photo Credit: NOAA Let’s pretend you are a water molecule floating through the AMOC system. We’ll start along the equator. Here you are warmed up by the intense equatorial sunlight. As you float northward, you are picked up by the Gulf Stream, a strong ocean current leading you upward along the coasts of the Americas. Every second, 17 million cubic meters of seawater is carried northward by the AMOC (an equivalent of 6,800 Olympic swimming pools!) The Gulf Stream carries you farther away from the heat of the equator and you eventually begin to cool. By the time you reach the North Atlantic, you’ve become much, much colder. In fact, it is so cold that the water around you freezes into sea ice. As this sea ice forms, salt is left behind and the salinity of the ocean water increases. Compared to where you started, the ocean is now both colder and saltier, and both of these characteristics make the water denser. Denser water sinks. You begin to rapidly drop toward the bottom of the ocean. This sinking is incredibly powerful, and it drives the AMOC cycle, acting as a motor to the ocean current system. As you float down, you also travel back southward where you will eventually resurface near the equator in a process known as upwelling. Upwelling brings nutrients from the deep sea to the surface, which helps support marine life. When you surface, you are warm again and ready to continue traveling the globe. All ocean currents are connected, and the AMOC (particularly the sinking in the North Atlantic) is powerful enough to drive the flow of water around the planet. The AMOC allows for the transfer of heat from the equator northward which helps regulate the weather in Europe, keeping it from freezing over despite its high latitude. But climate change threatens to shut the whole system down. With rising temperatures, the water in the North Atlantic is becoming less dense. This is both because warmer water is inherently less dense and because it is now too warm for the sea ice to form. Additionally, melting ice and increased rainfall are adding back more freshwater. The combination leads to less salty and therefore less dense water. Without dense water to rapidly sink, the motor of the AMOC is slowing down and threatening to disrupt ocean currents everywhere. The Impact Some data suggests the AMOC has already slowed down by as much as 15% since 1950. So what happens if the AMOC shuts down entirely? Without the AMOC, Europe would no longer receive the extra heat from the equator that the AMOC provides. This would make for much colder winters. Additionally, the climate is a very fragile and interconnected system, so while Europe would be the most directly affected, these changes would also impact weather patterns globally. An AMOC collapse could affect the Indian monsoon season and create droughts in parts of Africa. It could also increase sea level rise on the East Coast of the US and affect rainy/dry seasons in the Amazon, etc. The AMOC brings warmer temperatures to Europe by distributing heat northward from the equator. Without it, Europe would see much colder and harsher winter weather. This image is of the Dolomites in Italy. Photo Credit: Anastasia Gubinskaya / Getty Images Recovery / Conclusion The AMOC collapse is an example of a climate “tipping point”, meaning that it would have massive repercussions and would be nearly impossible to reverse. While research has not yet determined how soon or how certain that collapse might be, it is clear that the AMOC is slowing down, and even a little bit of that weakening could have serious implications. That’s why it is important that we take immediate action to slow emissions, curb climate change, and avoid it altogether. In order to keep our ocean currents and our weather patterns stable, we need to protect the AMOC and avoid another disaster at sea. Citations / Directories Citation No. 1: “Effects of Climate Change”, Written by Unknown, Published on Unknown Date. Published by NOAA. Retrieval Date: August 30th, 2026 https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/05conveyor3.html Citation No. 2: “Oceans Explained AMOC”, Written by Unknown, Published on Unknown Date. Published by National Oceanography Centre. Retrieval Date: September 1st, 2026 https://www.noc.ac.uk/discover-the-ocean/oceans-explained/the-atlantic-meridional-overturning-circulation Citation No. 3: “ What is the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)?”, Written by Unknown, Published on Unknown Date. Published by NOAA. Retrieval Date: September 8th, 2026 https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/amoc.html Citation No. 4: “What would happen if the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) Collapses? How likely is it?”, Written by MIT Climate Portal Writing team, Published on November 7th, 2024. Published by Climate Portal. Retrieval Date: September 9th, 2026 https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/what-would-happen-if-atlantic-meridional-overturning-circulation-amoc-collapses-how-likely Citation No. 5: “What is the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)?”, Written by Unknown, Published on Unknown Date. Published by NOAA. Retrieval Date: September 9th, 2026 https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/amoc.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of the gorgeous coast near Trieste, Italy. Credit to Dovolenkářka. Today’s article focuses on the oceans surrounding Trieste, Italy. Trieste is a port city located in Northern Italy along the Adriatic Sea. It has a fairly large population of 198,668 individuals. It is located near the Italian-Slovenian & Italian-Croatian borders. The city links these 3 countries, as well as the rest of the Mediterranean, making it a center of trade. Modernly, it is considered the Mediterranean endpoint of the 21st-century Maritime Silk Road, an international development initiative developed by the Chinese Government. Trieste is often colloquially referred to as the “City of Science”, given its heavy research presence. Across Europe, it has the highest number of researchers per capita, at an astounding 37.1 per thousand individuals. In addition to its scientific prowess, it is also known for its contributions to the coffee industry, affectionately referred to by lovers of the drink as the “City of Coffee”. Annually, residents of Trieste consume twice the mean of the average Italian. The city is packed with historic cafes, coffee breweries, roasters, & important companies. Apart from its statuesque architecture, vibrant culinary scene, & domineering research industry, Trieste is known for its natural beauty. With wonders such as the Miramare Nature Reserve, Rosandra Valley Reserve, & Carsiana Botanical Garden, the city is home to thousands of fascinating creatures, both terrestrial & marine. Trieste’s coastlines boast brilliant biodiversity, from Fan Mussels (Atrina fragilis), to Peacock Blennies (Salaria pavo). Thousands of species large & small call the waters surrounding Trieste their home. As a result of these robust ecosystems, an eco-tourism economy has developed. Coastal walks, snorkelling, boat excursions, & scuba diving are all available at the UNESCO MaB Miramare Reserve. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, tides, temperatures, & marine geography, the most prominent ecosystems, marine flora, & marine fauna of Trieste. With that being said, let us delve into the beautiful blue waters of Trieste, Italy! The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Depth, & Marine Geography of Trieste The salinity around Trieste fluctuates wildly depending on the season, weather, & local conditions. Salinity in the Gulf of Trieste may vary from 35 to 38 parts per thousand (practical salinity units). (Salinity is measured in 1000-gram increments of water, & for every 1000 grams of water, a certain amount of salt is present.)This measurement is called parts per thousand, or practical salinity units. Factors such as seasonal freshwater runoff from rivers, namely the Soča (Isonzo) River can play a role in influencing the salinity. Water leaving the region through processes such as evaporation can increase salinity, while water entering the region through freshwater inflow may decrease the salinity. As such, the salinity in the region varies significantly depending on seasonality & local conditions, with the average hovering around 37 parts per thousand (practical salinity units). The tidal charts for Trieste may be found on a plethora of websites, including https://www.tide-forecast.com/, https://www.tideschart.com/, & https://www.thetidechart.com/. Tides are relatively low, with a maximum tidal range of approximately 130 centimeters (4.3 feet) during especially strong spring tides. Tides generally stay between 40 & 60 centimeters (1.3 to 1.9 feet). Trieste’s waters are generally calm, with gentle waves. The temperature charts for Trieste may be found on similar websites, including https://www.seatemperature.org, https://seatemperature.info/, & https://seatemperature.info/. The average annual sea temperature is approximately 63.5° Fahrenheit (17.54 Celsius). According to this average, it is recommended that anyone who desires to engage in diving, or a similar aquatic recreation should use a 4 to 5-millimeter-thick wetsuit. A few of the most popular beaches around Trieste include Beach Barcola, La Lanterna, Topolini Beach, Liburnia Beach, & Sisitiana. A photograph of Liburnia Beach near Trieste, Italy. This beach is known for its lovely pebbled shores, & calm coastal waters. Credit to Mitja Kemperle. In the Gulf of Trieste, water reaches a maximum of 121 feet, with an average of 61 feet. The seafloor around Trieste is predominantly flat, & composed of Holocene-aged (8,800 to 10,000 years ago) marine sediment. The Marine Ecosystems of Trieste Ecosystem Type No. 1: Intertidal Zones An intertidal zone is an area of coastline that is exposed to air at low tide, & is covered with water at high tide. It is a very important location for many small marine animals, such as gastropods, crustaceans, & bivalves. Many animals will take advantage of the nutrients & microorganisms that come in with the high tide. Tide pools are a kind of rock formation located in the intertidal zone, in which water becomes trapped to form a small pool at low tide as the tide recedes, creating a miniature sea of sorts. These pools generally have species from the phyla Echinodermata & Mollusca in them. Around Trieste, these zones are also inhabited by a species of endemic brown macroalgae known as Fucus virsoides. This brown macroalga provides important habitats to the local marine life. Ecosystem Type No. 2: Soft Muddy Seabeds Much of the seafloor in the Gulf of Trieste is composed of soft, flat, muddy seabeds. These seabeds are a hotspot for benthic, or bottom-dwelling marine life. They act as a space for benthic fish such as the common sole (Solea solea), & peacock blenny (Salaria pavo). In addition to benthic fish, they act as a hotspot for molluscs & echinoderms such as the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris), common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), noble pen shell (Pinna nobilis), purple sea urchin (Paracentrotus lindus), brittle stars, sea cucumbers, & sea stars. A noble pen shell (Pinna nobilis) sticking out of the seafloor, surrounded by all manner of marine life. This photograph was taken off the coast of Spain, in the Mediterranean Sea. Credit to Ullstein Bild. Ecosystem Type No. 3: The Pelagic Zone The open waters around Trieste are home to larger marine life such as the Blue Shark (Prionace glauca), bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), squid, sea turtles, & dolphins. Blooms of the jellyfish species Rhizostoma pulmo can also be found from spring to autumn. As a result of the water column being so shallow, water can vary significantly in temperature depending on seasonal conditions. The Marine Flora of Trieste Trieste is home to an abundance of marine flora, including common eelgrass (Zostera marina), little neptune grass (Cymodocea nodosa), & the endemic brown macroalgae Fucus virsoides. Common Eelgrass (Zostera marina): A seagrass meadow of what is believed to be Zostera marina. Credit to Sue Scott. Common eelgrass, also known as seawrack, is a true seagrass native to the North Pacific & Atlantic. It is characterized by bright green slender blades, usually 7.8 to 19.6 inches (20 to 50 centimeters) long. This species is frequently found along the coast, & is known for favouring muddy or sandy shorelines. It is known for forming dense aggregations known as meadows, which act as an important habitat for juvenile fish. This species is also an important food source for seabirds. Little Neptune Grass (Cymodocea nodosa): A photograph of a patch of Little Neptune grass. Credit to Bernat Garrigós. Little Neptune grass is a species of true seagrass native to the Mediterranean Sea, & Atlantic Ocean. It is recognized for its long, thin, dark green blades. Fucus virsoides: A photograph of a patch of Fucus virsoides. Credit to Alchetron. Fucus virsoides is a species of brown macroalgae endemic to the Adriatic Sea. Although it once formed extensive underwater forests, it is now considered endangered. It is the only species of its genus known to inhabit the Mediterranean. Favouring rocky coastal waters, this species may be seen growing along the sea cliffs around Trieste. It is important to note that algae isn’t technically a plant, & is instead a heterokont/stramenopile, making it a protist. The Marine Fauna of Trieste From the shores to the pelagic, Trieste is positively teeming with marine animals. Creatures include the common sole (Solea solea), peacock blenny (Salaria pavo), common octopus (Octopus vulgaris), common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), noble pen shell (Pinna nobilis), purple sea urchin (Paracentrotus lindus), blue shark (Prionace glauca), bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), squid, sea turtles, common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), barrel jellyfish (Rhizostoma pulmo), bull ray (Aetomylaeus bovinus), & assorted brittle stars, sea cucumbers, & sea stars. A photograph of a scuba diver jumping into the gorgeous Miramare Marine Reserve. Credit to Hostel Museum. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Trieste Gulf”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Friuli Venezia Giulia Tourism. https://www.turismofvg.it/en/sea/sea-trieste-gulf?LangSetCMS=en Citation No. 2: “The 33 best beaches in and around Trieste”, Written by the Wanderlog Staff, & Published on February 28th, 2025. Published by Wanderlog. https://wanderlog.com/list/geoCategory/110104/best-beaches-in-and-around-trieste Citation No. 3: “Species and Habitat”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by AMP Miramare. https://www.ampmiramare.it/en/species-and-habitat/ Citation No. 4: “Interactive Identification Key for Marine Organisms of the Gulf of Trieste”, Written by Nataša Dolenc Orbanić, Claudio Battelli, Janja Plazar, Petra Furlan, & Nastja Cotič, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the University of Trieste. https://dryades.units.it/home/index.php?procedure=ext_key_home&key_type=var&key_id=10002 Citation No. 5: “Wetsuit thickness & temperature guide”, Written by Mark Evans, & Published on April 24th, 2023, at 3:05 PM. Published By Scuba Divers Magazine. https://divernet.com/content-marketing/wetsuit-thickness-and-temperature-guide/#Scuba_diving_wetsuits Citation No. 6: “Submerged and buried Pleistocene river channels in the Gulf of Trieste (Northern Adriatic Sea): Geomorphic, stratigraphic and tectonic inferences”, Written by Ana Trobec, Andrej Šmuc, Sašo Poglajen, & Marko Vrabec, & Published on June 1st, 2027. Published by Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169555X16310893 Citation No. 7: “Multi-platform study of the extreme bloom of the barrel jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa) in the northernmost gulf of the Mediterranean Sea (Gulf of Trieste) in April 2021”, Written by Nydia Catalina Reyes Suàrez, Valentina Tirelli, Laura Ursella, Matjaž Ličer, Massimo Cello, & Vanessa Cardin, & Published on May 31st, 2022. Published by EGUsphere. https://egusphere.copernicus.org/preprints/2022/egusphere-2022-393/ Citation No. 8: “Thickness of marine Holocene sediment in the Gulf of Trieste (northern Adriatic Sea)”, Written by Ana Trobec, Martina Busetti, Fabrizio Zgur, Luca Baradello, Alberto Babich, Andrea Cova, Emiliano Gordini, Roberto Romeo, Isabella Tomini, Sašo Poglajen, Paolo Diviacco, & Marko Vrabec, & Published on June 14th, 2018. Published by Copernicus Publications. https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/10/1077/2018/essd-10-1077-2018.pdf Citation No. 9: “Trieste, sightings of bull rays: Unique Mediterranean case but threat to mussel farms”, Written by Chiara Zampiva, & Published on July 17th, 2026. Published by Euronews. https://www.euronews.com/2026/07/17/trieste-sightings-of-bull-rays-unique-mediterranean-case-but-threat-to-mussel-farms Citation No. 10: “Common Eelgrass”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by The Wildlife Trusts UK. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/marine/seaweeds-and-seagrass/common-eelgrass Citation No. 11: “Little Neptune Grass”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by PlantSnap. https://plantsnap.com/plant-care/cymodocea-nodosa Citation No. 12: “Fucus virsoides in the Adriatic Sea: a glacial relict in the era of climate changes”, Written by Emannuelle Descourvières, & Published on April 16th, 2026. Published by the University of Trieste. https://arts.units.it/handle/11368/3108140 Citation No. 13: “Ecophysiological responses of Fucus virsoides (Phaeophyceae, Fucales) to past and present nutrient conditions in the northern Adriatic”, Written by Emmanuelle Descourvières, Martina Mulas, Sara Natale, Raquel Sánchez de Pedro, Alessandro Alboresi, Cosimo Solidoro, Vinko Bandelj, & Annalisa Falace, & Published October 7th, 2024. Published by the University of Trieste. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00227-024-04523-1.pdf Citation No. 14: “9 Beaches in & Around Trieste”, Written by Kat Smith, & Published on April 16th, 2026. Published by Mamma Mia Indeed. https://www.mammamiaindeed.com/articles/beaches-in-trieste Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of the beautiful coastline of Patagonia. Credit to golero/Getty Images. Today’s map is an antique 173-year-old nautical chart of Patagonia. This chart is rather large, at 26.5 inches long by 38.3 inches wide. It is in pristine condition, with minimal soiling, except for some discolouration on the far left. It focuses on the southern reaches of Argentina, as well as Chile. It also features the Falkland, & South Shetland Islands. In today’s article, we are going to examine this fascinating antique nautical map, discuss it, & analyze it. With that being said, let’s delve into the frigid, unforgiving waters of the South Atlantic! The Chart A 173-year-old antique nautical chart of Patagonia, produced by Aime Robiquet. Credit to raremaps.com. This chart features the southern tip of Patagonia, Tierra Del Fuego, as well as the South Shetland Islands. It is filled with useful navigation information, critical to any mariner of the era looking to navigate Patagonia. It is elegantly decorated with a minimalist cartouche consisting of curved & wavy lines. 3 compasses roses are available throughout, which would have assisted sailors in not losing their way in the formidable Strait of Magellan. It is in French, as it was originally published in Paris. Off the coast of Western Patagonia, the phrase “Les chiffres de Sondes experiment des Métres, Pour convertir les Métres en brasses il fault divisier par 1.62”, which roughly translates to “The figures from the experimental depth soundings are in meters. To convert meters to fathoms, divide by 1.62”. This would have been used by any sailor looking to gauge the depth of the sea surrounding them in order to ensure they would not run aground, & that they had enough swivel to support their anchor. Information for this chart was gathered from 2 primary expeditions, respectively from 1826 to 1830, & from 1831 to 1836. During the first of these expeditions, the HMS Beagle & the HMS Adventure were dispatched by the Royal Navy to explore Patagonia, Tierra Del Fuego, & the Strait of Magellan, with the goal of developing a more advanced understanding of the region for navigation & shipping. Captain Pringle Stokes, the commander of the HMS Beagle, unfortunately passed away by suicide during the voyage. He was quickly replaced by the 23-year-old Lieutenant Robert FitzRoy. After a hostage situation in which a group of Indigenous peoples from Tierra Del Fuego took hold of one of the Beagle’s tenders (support boats), resulting in Captain FitzRoy taking multiple Indigenous individuals hostage, the expedition ended relatively peacefully, having achieved its goals. Upon its return, the HMS Beagle was renovated to have the best scientific & navigational equipment available. A second expedition was then dispatched to the region in 1831, with Charles Darwin in tow. Darwin would go on to make some of the most consequential biological, geological, & geographical observations during this fateful journey, publishing Journal & Remarks, later renamed The Voyage of the Beagle (1839) as a result of the expedition. A watercolour illustration of a group of Indigenous peoples hailing the HMS Beagle somewhere in Patagonia. This illustration was done by English landscape painter Conrad Martens, who joined the HMS Beagle from 1833 to 1834. An Analysis of the Chart The chart was originally published in 1853 by Aimé Robiquet. Aimé Robiquet was a French cartographer, hydrographer, & publisher during the 19th century. Unfortunately, very little is known about his life, including his date of birth & death. His offices were located at Rue Pavée Saint Andre No. 2, in Paris, France. This chart was originally titled “Carte des Cotes de la Patagonie et des Mers du Cap Horn Dressee d'apres de Travaux du Cap.e R. Fitz Roy de la Marine Britannique”, which roughly translates to “Map of the Patagonian Coast and the Seas off Cape Horn, Based on the Surveys of Captain R. Fitz Roy of the British Navy”. Upon reviewing the publishing house, & time it was made, this chart was most likely manufactured using lithography. Lithography is a method of printing that arose in the 1820s, & remained the most popular method of printing in both color & grayscale until the early 1960s, when more efficient methods became available. Although it has existed since the mid-1790s, it took a long time to gain popularity in Europe due to technical difficulties. It only began gaining commercial popularity in the early 1820s. It is still used for certain kinds of printing today, such as fine art printing, however, digital printing is far more common. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the image is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho-press. Afterward, an exact copy of what was supposed to be printed is revealed. It is extremely useful for making high-resolution prints in high quantities. A stunning photograph of Yendegaia Bay National Park, Hornos Island, Chile. This island is located at the southern tip of Tierra Del Fuego, near Cape Horn. Credit to Andreea Lotak. Directories / Credits All credit for the map analyzed today goes to Rare Maps, a California rare & antique maps store. To purchase this chart, antique atlases, or other cartographic objects, please visit www.raremaps.com. To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Rare Maps, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of a gorgeous dolphin stampede in Southern California. Credit to Stacie Fox. California’s Pacific coast is one of the most biodiverse and abundant ecosystems worldwide teaming with almost 2000 species of microorganisms, plants, fish, marine mammals, turtles, invertebrates, and seabirds supported by a Mediterranean climate. Its famous offshore, underwater, and coastal rock formations date back to the Cretaceous period and help subsidize this special bionetwork making the state’s ocean waters and sea life sacred and unique. Unfortunately, California’s precious coastal ecosystem also faces massive threats in the vein of climate change/global warming, the devastation of kelp forests, ocean acidification, algal blooms, and habitat destruction; sounding the alarm for the time-sensitive need for human intervention, conservation management, and awareness. The Pacific Tide series highlights monthly oceanic events occurring on the California coast and/or portraits important species who call the Pacific coastline waters home emphasizing the importance of conserving this critical ecosystem. In this month’s installment of The Pacific Tide, we introduce the not-so-glamourous but incredibly astonishing subject of dolphin poop! Dolphin stool is a leading solution against climate change helping absorb Co2 through the Cetacean Carbon Sequestration Cycle; single-handedly fighting greenhouse gases. Also explore with us while we dive among California’s Pacific coral reefs flourishing from under the nutrient benefits of dolphin poop plumes. Discover the U.S. Navy’s dolphin fleet at the Navy Marine Mammal Program and the groundbreaking procedure of dolphin fecal microbiota transplants (FMTs) spearheaded by Cardiology Veterinary Consultant, Dr. Barbara Linnehan, using dolphin-to-dolphin trans-rectal transplants to entirely cure dolphins suffering from gastrointestinal disease and maligned gut microbiome flora communities. California: The Dolphin Capital of the World The coastal beaches of California are undisputedly a gorgeous spectacle filled with palm trees, rolling sands, rocky cliff outcrops, dazzling sunsets, and sparkling, blue waters topped with white-capped waves; being well-worthy of its vacation destination title and postcard images. If this visual tapestry wasn’t heavenly enough; it becomes museum-quality when California’s most eminent marine mammals are spotted leaping into the air with the sun glistening off their wet, rubbery skin: dolphins. Renowned for their intellect, problem-solving skills, cheerful disposition, playfulness, and almost human-like social behavior; these Cetaceans (the scientific order including dolphins and whales) have been a ‘fan-favorite’ for generations, from the iconic “Flipper” television sitcom to the Lisa Frank school supplies pasted with colorful dolphin images owned by all 80s and 90s school children and every other derivation imaginable. California is the dolphin capital of the world, home to approximately one million dolphins up and down the Golden Coast. With more dolphins than Alaska, Hawaii and Florida combined; California has a greater density of dolphins per square mile than anywhere on Earth with 12 species of dolphins enjoying the west coast’s Pacific Blue. California’s primary dolphin species – Bottlenose, Common, Pacific White-Sided and Risso’s – are frequently observed swimming in families, pods and mega-pods ranging from 50 to 10,000 dolphins stampeding up to 200 miles daily at a minimum speed of 30 miles per hour with acrobatics added for flair. These California dolphins grow between 8 and 13 feet and recharge their energy bank by consuming 4 to 6% of their body weight, per day. With such a large appetite; dolphins can only thrive in oceans abundant in their favorite meals of a plump fish or slimy squid. California’s Pacific Ocean is the ideal sustenance grocery store for dolphins; ever-stocked with their favorite snacks which is why dolphins can be frequently spotted in both shallow California coastal waters and in the more temperate underwater canyon upwellings of the deeper seas. Dolphins serve a critical role in Pacific Ocean ecosystems being more than just a ‘cute’ gymnast in the oceanic Olympic games; as they are a sentinel species biomarker highlighting the health grade of the marine environment: a higher population of dolphins in the Pacific means the ocean is salubrious and teeming with food sources. Dolphins don’t just ‘take’, however, but also ‘give’ by single-handedly improving their watery home by creating a positive bio-cycle: greater number of dolphins → resultant of food-heavy ocean → resultant of large population of dolphins. How do dolphins act as a superhero of the ocean? It isn’t by donning a colorful cape but rather by means of something less glamorous: their fecal excrement. A photograph of a dolphin defecating in the ocean. Credit to Michelle Green. Is Dolphin Poop the Answer to Amend Climate Change? With upwards of a million dolphins swimming in California’s Pacific waters; this means a LOT of dolphin fecal matter floating in this giant toilet moonlighting as one of the ocean’s most important ecosystem players. Dolphin excrement is rich in nutrients particularly nitrogen, iron, and phosphorus which kick-starts the process of carbon sequestration: the absorption of the over-saturation of carbon dioxide that is the villain behind global warming and climate change. This powerful trifecta recipe in dolphin stool is the favorite metabolic nutrient food source of phytoplankton which acts as the trees of the ocean by undergoing photosynthesis and absorbing the pesky carbon. Matthew Savoca, a Marine Scientist at California’s Stanford University plainly describes phytoplankton as, “When they grow… they’re sucking in carbon dioxide and incorporating that into their cells”. When phytoplankton expires in death; the stored carbon is buried deep within the ocean’s sea beds thus diminishing the volume at the surface attempting to wreak havoc. California’s dolphin headquarters are a prime producer of this beneficial fecal matter with a single dolphin pod estimated to produce upwards of 634 pounds of nitrogen a year. Multiply that by California’s million-dolphin population and you will find that this Cetacean Carbon Cycle is not just benefiting oceanic ecosystem resilience and habitat productivity; but is also fighting global warming by regulating Co2. A diagram depicting the Cetacean Carbon Cycle. Cetaceans will move carbon across the planet both vertically, and latitudinally from north to south. Credit to the International Whaling Commission. Dolphins aren’t bashful with bathroom habits preferring to defecate at the surface with their carbon crusader poop mostly consisting of soft stool clouding the water in a fecal plume. This ‘Dolphin Tap’, coined by scientists, fortifies the carbon absorption cycle with dolphin excrement feeding phytoplankton, zooplankton (such as krill) eating the phytoplankton, fish in turn consuming krill, and finally dolphins imbibing on the fish; basically, making dolphins the regenerators of their own food chain while reducing greenhouse gases. This induction of the Dolphin Tap rightfully earns dolphins their moniker as ‘ecosystem engineers’ by means of reshaping their marine environment physically and biologically simply by being alive. Dolphin poop has been found to be beneficial in combating climate change and in restoring biodiversity; scientists and environmental policymakers are exploring the process of ‘ocean seeding’ to mitigate climate change – biomass ocean regeneration through the dissemination of artificial dolphin poop. Yes, artificial poop. This mock poop behaves akin to natural dolphin stool with identical minerals feeding the phytoplankton at the starting line of the carbon sequestration cycle. Even though this imitation feces is organically sound, using rice husks loaded with the perfect formula of nitrogen, iron, and phosphorus; ocean seeding is still in its infancy, and unknown in the extent of any negative side effects such as ocean deoxygenation. Richard Sabin, the Principal Curator of Mammals at the Natural History Museum in London, England cautions, “'It requires careful research as it's a big step to release detritus of any kind, including nutrient-rich types, into the ocean to make sure that the balance of nutrients and penetration of sunlight isn't adversely affected.” California’s dolphins are already working to save the planet by means of Co2 reduction through their fecal matter but a hero never rests when there is a cry for help; especially when the signal is coming from within the ocean, itself. California’s Hidden Treasure Trove of Corals If you’re planning your next vacation with the itinerary to swim among alluring, colorful coral reefs; you likely assume you need to book a plane ticket to a lush, tropical island or most famously: the Great Barrier Reef. What if I told you that you can find coral reefs in more temperate waters edging the entire California coastline? It might sound like nonsense; but it’s true! California’s corals are the direct definition of the adage of a ‘hidden gem’ even though the state’s shoreline is abundant in these underwater jewels. A photograph of a group of purple hydrocorals off the coast of California. Credit to Gabriel Lu. Traditional corals reside in shallow, warm waters growing and expanding through the process of photosynthesis thriving off the sun’s rays and symbiotic relationships with algal communities. In contrast, California’s reefs are primarily deep-sea corals found at a depth of 10 to 10,000 feet existing on a mineral-nutrient diet rather than solar power which fails to penetrate these depths. Although less famous; California’s coral reefs are a key asset to the Pacific oceanic ecosystem and even boast rare corals that are native to the state’s waters resembling a homage to a candy store with Strawberry Anemone, Bubble Gum Coral, Purple Hydrocoral, and Barrel Sponges sounding more like dessert than sea creatures. Coral reefs can be found parallel to the entire shoreline with the largest reefs living off Catalina Island, another 80 miles off the Monterey coast at the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary (Davidson Seamount), Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary, and the mighty Sur Ridge in Central California’s waters. California’s corals are more than just a Candyland board game and are essential marine ecosystem players being the adhesive holding together the sea beds and providing a habitat for sea plants and animals. If these reefs were to become metaphorically bulldozed; California’s coastal waters would suffer an identity crisis with the extinction of tide pools, kelp forests, and in turn: marine animals and plants. These corals are of such importance that lawmakers have zoned each California reef as a marine sanctuary area and prohibit the alteration, destruction, or taking of the precious California corals. A photograph of a gorgeous orange coral reef near Santa Catalina Island, CA. Credit to Brian Huang. Corals have existed off the shores of California for thousands of years with many of today’s reef generations being formed over multiple centuries. Age doesn’t protect these corals from modern-day damage, global warming, or being highly threatened by ocean acidification and bottom-trawling fishing. Central California’s waters are characteristically low in pH hastening acidification and the destruction of the bio-diversity of its corals. Humans are also ill-fated for these gems of the sea with scientists finding evidence of pesticides, trash, ghost fishing gear, anchors, and toxic chemicals at a depth of 12,000 feet testing the resilience of these mighty but fragile reefs. "The California coast could be considered the front line for ocean acidification damage, within 50 years, and certainly by the end of the century. As ocean acidification due to our C02 emissions intensifies along this coast, those corals are gonna have a hard time," clarifies Jim Barry, a marine biologist working at California’s Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute. Scientists, ocean conservationists, California oceanic restorationists, and lawmakers have worked in tandem to protect and restore corals by implementing artificial rock reefs up-and-down the coast dating back to as early as 1958. Although these efforts are celebrated; the real guardians of corals aren’t manmade but a bit closer to home…You guessed it: dolphin poop! Dolphin Poop: The Knight in Shining Armor to Coral Reefs The cornucopia of corals in California’s coastal waters is increasingly threatened by rising water temperatures, elevated levels of carbon, ocean acidification, and man-made stressors such as overfishing causing an urgent level of panic among marine biologists and ocean conservationists. These colorful relatives of jellyfish and sea anemones are critical to California’s oceanic ecosystem in support of biodiversity and seabed infrastructure. Corals have an evolutionary flaw of being anemic of phosphorus and nitrogen – two key nutrients they absolutely require to flourish and grow. In swoop the dolphins with their superpower feces that are rich in this coral cocktail. California’s dolphins are creatures of habit with regimented schedules opting to spend extended periods of time ‘resting’ in sheltered parts of the sea before venturing in the pursuit of the hunt or play. Where do dolphins like to metaphorically spend a lazy morning and conserve their energy? In the peaceful, undisturbed deep-sea corals of the Pacific. During this respite period, these dolphin pods defecate frequently providing the exact nutrients that corals desperately demand making dolphin poop a vital ally in coral maintenance and restoration. Scientists have even discovered that dolphins return to the coral habitats after the hunt to digest their prey which means even more pool plumes gifted to the corals solving reef grief. Marine studies have concluded evidence of dolphins being consistent nutrient transporters to coral communities with data collected between 2013 and 2022 showing that a single dolphin excretes almost half a pound of beneficial poop a day (81 pounds a year) and spends 36% of their waking hours in coral reefs. Extended to pods, 3000/5300 pounds of dolphin nutrient waste is absorbed directly by corals, annually. In order to protect California corals; it is vital to sequentially protect dolphins with their savior poop. Dolphins are the chief marine species to encounter human activity exposure 82% of the day spread across tourism, boats, freight vessels, fishing, and even offshore drilling. Marine mammal advocates stress the importance of passing dolphin-protection policies against human-centric threats in order to maintain their benefits to coral (and oceanic) ecosystems. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) upheld a governing law in Hawaii declaring a 50-yard approach limit to spinner dolphins (who have been proven to protect and restore Hawaii’s corals) within two nautical miles of the shoreline. California’s marine scientists and activists seek similar protections for the Golden State’s cetaceans. The Healing Power of Dolphin Poop Transplants You’ve heard of Navy SEALs, but have you heard of Navy Dolphins? Bottlenose dolphins, that is! In 1959, the United States Navy founded the ‘Marine Mammal Program’ under the tutelage of the Reconnaissance and Interdiction Division at the Naval Information Warfare Center in Point Loma (San Diego), California. This program trains bottlenose dolphins (and California sea lions) to participate in U.S. Navy missions including the detection of undersea mines, the attachment of recovery lines, and even James Bond-esque security detail for the recognition of unauthorized or suspected ‘enemies’ in California’s coastal waters. If protecting the California shoreswasn’t heroic enough; the U.S. Navy dolphin fleet also facilitated the discovery of a marine mammal medical breakthrough using none other than their amazing poop! Dr. Barbara Linnehan, the Navy Marine Mammal Program’s Cardiology Veterinary Consultant was serving in her role as the Director of Animal Health & Welfare (2022- 2025) studying the delicate gut microbiomes of the dolphin fleet; when she documented dolphins suffering from gastrointestinal infirmities not responding to standard veterinary antibiotics. A dolphin’s intestinal system and gut microbiome host 80% of its immune system working in cahoots with the rest of the dolphin’s organs to keep overall health, in check. Dr. Linnehan was familiar with the practice of transplanting fecal stool from a healthy human host to that of a gastro-maligned recipient better known as fecal microbiota transplants (FMTs); and it dawned on her that fecal transplants could potentially be replicated among cetaceans. Linnehan and her veterinary team spearheaded a groundbreaking dolphin-to-dolphin fecal transplant resulting in the complete recovery of the gastrointestinal suffering of the ailing dolphin. A table depicting the steps of an FMT transplant. Credit to the study Evaluation of the safety and efficacy of fecal microbiota transplantations in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) using metagenomic sequencing. To explore this new field of dolphin fecal microbiota transplants; Linnehan teamed with Sho Kodera of the Gilbert Lab at the Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine at University of San Diego’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography to conduct a first-of-its-kind comprehensive study and implementation of dolphin FMTs. From January 2019 to February 2022, scientists transplanted stools collected from healthy dolphin donors in California’s Navy Marine Mammal Program to dolphins with poor gastrointestinal health before sequencing the gut microbiomes and authenticating signs of the re-growth and recuperation of dolphin gut flora. The team performed dolphin FMTs trans-rectally using eight healthy dolphin host donors with the transplants resulting in the full recoveries of all recipient dolphins with gastrointestinal disease and recuperation of the diversity of gut microbial communities even in those dolphins previously resistant to medication. The gut microbiomes of recipient dolphins post-transplant were found to resemble the healthy donor and successfully maintained positive gut levels even two years after the procedure. Linnehan’s team even secured a ‘dolphin bank’ of logged dolphin poop available for future emergency dolphin FMTs. Think of it as a dolphin pharmacy, if you will. Dr. Linnehan explains, “During the project, we also came up with an effective protocol for banking healthy donor dolphin feces for later use. This has proven beneficial so that when an FMT is needed we have a healthy dolphin stool bank to pull from”. The dolphin fecal microbiota transplant study also investigated procedural methods such as using fresh versus frozen dolphin feces, rectal transplants or oral supplements, and a single FMT or a series of transplants in order to create a solid methodology for future dolphin fecal microbiota transplants. Dolphin FMTs not only emphasize the benefit of dolphin stool but have also piloted an alternative treatment for cetaceans with gastrointestinal disease. Although primarily beneficial, veterinary medication has been found to destroy both ‘good and bad’ dolphin gut microbial flora preventing full recovery and regrowth. Dolphin FMTs avoid this pitfall and offer an encouraging new treatment plan. “This work is important to the veterinary community because it highlights a therapeutic option other than antibiotics to effectively treat gastrointestinal diseases in cetaceans, and describes a safe and effective protocol to alter the gut microbiome in animals with dysbiosis,” Dr Linnehan asserted. The next time you think of feces as ‘gross’; remember that dolphins are using their stool to fight climate change and maintain oceanic ecosystems, ‘feed’ and restore coral reefs, and heal the gut health of fellow cetaceans through trans-rectal transplants. The power of dolphin poop! Directories/Credits 1: “Get to Know Common Dolphins and the Dolphin Stampede”, Written by Unknown. Published on Unknown Date by Captain Dave’s Dolphin Safari https://www.dolphinsafari.com/common-dolphins-and-dolphin-stampede/ 2: “Common Dolphin”, Written by Unknown. Published on Unknown Date by Orange County Outdoors https://www.orangecountyoutdoors.com/wildlife/marine-mammals/common-dolphin 3: “California is a Dolphin Paradise”, Written by Erik Olsen. Published on February 13, 2023, by California Curated https://californiacurated.com/blog/california-is-a-dolphin-paradise/ 4: “Five Different Types of Dolphins in Dana Point”, Written by Unknown. Published on Unknown Date by Captain Dave’s Dolphin Safari https://www.dolphinsafari.com/five-different-types-of-dolphins-in-dana-point/ 5: The Dolphin Tap: Assessing the Ecosystem Role of Spinner Dolphins in Supplying Nutrients to Coral Reefs in Maui Nui, Hawai’i, Written by Unknown. Published on February 13, 2026, by Pacific Whale Foundation https://pacificwhale.org/the-dolphin-tap-assessing-the-ecosystem-role-of-spinner-dolphins-in-supplying-nutrients-to-coral-reefs-in-maui-nui-hawaii/ 6: “Nutrient-Rich Dolphin Poop Could Help Save Damaged Coral Reef”, Written by Nidhi Goyal. Published on July 12th, 2022 by Industry Tap into News https://www.industrytap.com/nutrient-rich-dolphin-poop-could-help-save-damaged-coral-reef/63155 7: “Why Cetaceans”, Written by Unknown. Published on Unknown Date by World Cetacean Alliance https://worldcetaceanalliance.org/who-we-are/why-cetaceans/ 8: “‘Ocean Gardeners’: How Whale Poop Helps Fight Climate Change”, Written by Asiye Latife Yilmaz. Published on June 5, 2026, by Anadolu Ajansı News https://www.aa.com.tr/en/environment/-ocean-gardeners-how-whale-poop-helps-fight-climate-change/3957355 9: “Artificial Whale Poo Could Help Restore Ocean Biodiversity”, Written by James Ashworth. Published on March 9, 2022, by United Kingdom Natural History Museum https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2022/march/artificial-whale-poo-could-help-restore-ocean-biodiversity.html 10: The Dolphin Tap: Assessing the Ecosystem Role of Spinner Dolphins in Supplying Nutrients to Coral Reefs in Maui Nui, Hawai’i, Written by Grace L, Olson, Shannon M. Barber-Meyer, Jens J. Currie. Published on January 14, 2026, by Frontiers in Mammal Science https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/mammal-science/articles/10.3389/fmamm.2025.1712553/full 11: “Dolphin Poop Helps Save Coral Reefs”, Written by Cathy Brown. Published on August 22, 2022, by Good Nature https://www.nathab.com/blog/dolphin-poop-helps-save-coral-reefs 12: “How Dolphin Poop Could Help Save Damaged Coral Reef”, Written by Talker News. Published in July 6, 2022 by Talker Newshttps://talker.news/2022/07/06/how-dolphin-poop-could-help-save-damaged-coral-reef/ 13: “Dolphin Poo Could Be Key Ingredient in Coral Reef Survival”, Written by Ethan Freedman. Published on July 7, 2022, by The Independent https://www.the-independent.com/climate-change/news/dolphin-poo-coral-reef-b2118147.html 14: “Deep-Sea Coral Habitat”, Written by Unknown. Published on Unknown Date by Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History https://ocean.si.edu/ecosystems/coral-reefs/deep-sea-coral-habitat 15: “Deep-Sea Corals”, Written by Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary. Published on an unknown date by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration https://farallones.noaa.gov/science/corals.html 16: “California's Rock Reefs”, Written by OC Habitats. Published on February 15, 2021, by OC Habitats https://www.ochabitats.org/post/california-s-rock-reefs 17: “Exploring the Cold-Water Corals of the California Coast”, Written by Robert Eagle. Published on Unknown Date 2025 by UCLA Institute of Environment and Sustainability https://www.ioes.ucla.edu/project/exploring-the-cold-water-corals-of-the-california-coast/ 18: “Exploring Corals of the Deep”, Written by Sheraz Sadiq. Published on March 9, 2016, by KQED National Public Radio News https://www.kqed.org/quest/37167/exploring-corals-of-the-deep 19: “Deep-Sea Coral and Sponge Community Observatory at Sur Ridge”, Written by Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Published on Unknown Date by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration https://montereybay.noaa.gov/science/research/observatory.html 20: “Using Fecal Transplants to Treat Dolphins with Gastrointestinal Disease”, Written by Sho Kodera. Published on April 4, 2024, by Scripps Institution of Oceanography https://scripps.ucsd.edu/news/using-fecal-transplants-treat-dolphins-gastrointestinal-disease 21: “Evaluation of the Safety and Efficacy of Fecal Microbiota Transplantations in Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops Truncatus) Using Metagenomic Sequencing”, Written by Barbara K Linnehan, Sho M Kodera, Sarah M Allard, Erin C Brodie, Celeste Allaband, Rob Knight, Holly L Lutz, Maureen C Carroll, Jennifer M Meegan, Eric D Jensen, Jack A Gilbert. Published on February 1, 2024, by National Library of Medicine, Oxford University Press https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10853691/ 22: “Researchers Carry Out First Peer-Reviewed Study of Fecal Microbiota Transplants in Dolphins”, Written by Linda Stewart. Published on Unknown Date March 2024, Updated May 2, 2024 by National Marine Mammal Foundation https://nmmf.org/researchers-carry-out-first-peer-reviewed-study-of-fecal-microbiota-transplants-in-dolphins/ 23: “Marine Mammal Program”, Written by Unknown. Published on Unknown Date by Naval Information Warfare Center https://www.niwcpacific.navy.mil/about/departments/intelligence-surveillance-and-reconnaissance/marine-mammal-program/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of a male Peacock Blenny taken in 2009. Credit to George Chernilevsky. Today’s article is going to dive into the fascinating lives of the Peacock Blenny of Trieste, Italy. Trieste is a port city located in Northern Italy along the Adriatic Sea. It has a fairly large population of 198,668 individuals. It is located near the Italian-Slovenian & Italian-Croatian borders. The city links these 3 countries, as well as the rest of the Mediterranean, making it a center of trade. Modernly, it is considered the Mediterranean endpoint of the 21st-century Maritime Silk Road, an international development initiative developed by the Chinese Government. Trieste is often colloquially referred to as the “City of Science”, given its heavy research presence. Across Europe, it has the highest number of researchers per capita, at an astounding 37.1 people per thousand individuals. In addition to its scientific prowess, it is also known for its contributions to the coffee industry, affectionately referred to by lovers of the drink as the “City of Coffee”. Annually, residents of Trieste consume twice the mean of the average Italian. The city is packed with historic cafes, coffee breweries, roasters, & important companies. Apart from its statuesque architecture, vibrant culinary scene, & domineering research industry, Trieste is known for its natural beauty. With wonders such as the Miramare Nature Reserve, Rosandra Valley Reserve, & Carsiana Botanical Garden, the city is home to thousands of fascinating creatures, both terrestrial & marine. One of the creatures that calls Trieste home is the Peacock Blenny. The Peacock Blenny is a species of fish known for its elongated appearance, & fleshy crest. They are native to the Mediterranean, as well as the North Atlantic, & occupy shallow waters between 0 & 10 meters. They may be seen along rocky shorelines, intertidal zones, harbours, & coastal man-made structures. Individuals are fiercely territorial, & protective over their homes as well as their young. In today’s article, we will discuss the discovery & life of the Peacock Blenny, the reproductive strategies of the Peacock Blenny, the distribution of the Peacock Blenny, & the scientific aspects of the Peacock Blenny. With that being said, let us delve into the fascinating world of this brilliant sea-creature! The Discovery & Life of the Peacock Blenny The Peacock Blenny was discovered in 1810 by Antoine Risso, a French naturalist & taxonomist from the city of Nice. Individuals measure 2.3 to 5.1 inches (6 to 13 centimeters) in length, & 7.12 to 27.63 grams in weight. Their lifespan is 2 to 5 years, with individuals living slightly longer in captivity. Unfortunately, very little information is available on the intelligence of the Peacock Blenny. Generally speaking, Blennies tend to be among the most intelligent fish, possessing some level of spatial memory, social awareness, recognition, & general smarts. Peacock Blennies are often mildly aggressive, & very territorial. Once they have found a crevice, rock, or other space they claim as home, they will fight with vitriolic aggression against any other creature who attempts to invade. In aquarium settings, they do not manage well with roommates of both their species & other animals, & prefer having their own space. Towards humans, they are usually skittish, with a tendency to retreat when humans approach. Individuals are poor swimmers who primarily inhabit the benthic zone, meaning the seafloor. It is important to understand that fish do not sleep in the same way humans or mammals do. Blennies will enter states of reduced activity as well as reduced metabolism during nights, but this is not comparable to the deep extended periods of rest that mammals will enter. While in their states of reduced activity, they will keep their brain partially active in order to be able to escape potential predators. Peacock Blennies will consume a variety of bottom-dwelling organisms such as algae, bivalves, sponges, crustaceans, sea snails, chitons, amphipods, isopods, insects, echinoderms, & fish eggs. Individuals are elongated, with a lighter brown base, larger brown stripes, bulky heads, & dotted white polka dots. Males tend to have bulkier heads, with brighter polka dots. During breeding season, males will grow fleshy protruding crests off the top of their heads to attract females. Thankfully, Peacock Blennies (Salaria pavo) are classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List. Their population is presently stable. A photograph of a male Peacock Blenny with a fleshy crest extending from its head. Credit to Roberto Pillon. The Reproductive Strategies of the Peacock Blenny Peacock Blennies reproduce via sexual reproduction, & are unable to reproduce asexually. Their mating system can be described as polygynous, as males will breed with multiple females every season. Their breeding season can broadly be defined as March through September, peaking from May to July. Individuals reach sexual maturity at approximately 1 year old. Upon reaching sexual maturity, males will begin searching for females to mate with, & grow fleshy crests off the top of their foreheads. Males will attract females through a series of nods & undulations. After attracting a suitable female, the female will lay her unfertilized eggs inside a nest, typically on a rock or in a crevice, & the males will release their sperm on top of the eggs. Males will then guard the eggs from other females, preventing harm from coming their way. They will use their fins to flush oxygenated water over their eggs, & release an antibacterial mucus in order to defend against microbial infections. Alternatively, smaller males, known as sneaker males, will mimic females to sneak past more dominant males in order to fertilize eggs. After 6 to 15 days, the baby peacock blennies will hatch, ready to face the sea. Upon hatching, the fry will have no further parental involvement. The Distribution of the Peacock Blenny Peacock Blennies are distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Adriatic Sea, & Red Sea after colonizing it via the Suez Canal. Individuals are typically found in shallow sheltered waters that contain rocks or seaweed meadows, usually 0 to 6.56 feet (0 to 2 meters) in depth. They are known to inhabit both brackish, & saltwater, with the ability to tolerate extremes on both ends. Individuals are not known to be migratory. The Scientific Aspects of the Peacock Blenny In the wild, Peacock Blennies are known to carry the parasite Myxidium parvum, a myxosporean parasite. Myxosporea is a group of microscopic parasites belonging to the group Cnidaria, a group which includes jellyfish, sea anemones, & coral. Myxosporeans are known to affect both freshwater & saltwater species, typically attacking the internal organs. They require an intermediate host before they enter the Peacock Blenny. Myxidium parvum is primarily limited to the Black Sea population of the Peacock Blenny. It also affects other blenny species in the region, such as the Tentacled Blenny. It typically attacks the gall bladder of its hosts. Individuals have a single row of small razor-like teeth on their upper & lower jaws, along with larger curved canine-like teeth at the back of their mouths. These teeth are used for devouring small invertebrates, fish eggs, & algae. Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either in adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Actinopterygii, this means that they are ray-finned fish. This also means that their actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements. This class comprises over 50% of living vertebrate species. Their order is Blenniformes. A universal trait of this order is that the tail fin is rounded, & the dorsal fin is continuous. Their family is Blenniidae, commonly known as Combtooth Blennies. Combtooth Blennies typically have blunt heads, large eyes, elongated bodies, & live in the benthic zone of the sea. Their genus is Salaria, & their scientific name is Salaria pavo. A photograph of a Peacock Blenny in a rocky reef. Credit to Roberto Pillon. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Peacock Blenny”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by ReefArchive. https://www.reefarchive.com/fish/blennies/peacock-blenny Citation No. 2: “Peacock Blenny”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Underwater Enterprises. https://divemalta.com/marine-life/bony-fish/peacock-blenny/ Citation No. 3: “Peacock Blenny”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Paul Richard Oceanographic Institute. https://www.institut-paul-ricard.org/en/especes_aquarium/peacock-blenny/ Citation No. 4: “Peacock Blenny”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Animalia. https://animalia.bio/peacock-blenny Citation No. 5: “Euro-Mediterranean Silk Road Passes Through Trieste & Istanbul”, Written by Paolo Deganutti, & Published on November 21st, 2025. Published by Plǔralia. https://pluralia.com/en/a/euro-mediterranean-silk-road-passes-through-trieste-and-istanbul/ Citation No. 6: “The Research Centers in Trieste”, Written by Unknown, & Published on August 18th, 2017. Published by the Embassy of Italy. https://ambriga.esteri.it/en/news/dall_ambasciata/2017/08/informazioni-sulla-realta-scientifica-2/ Citation No. 7: “Salaria pavo”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by FishBase. https://fishbase.se/summary/Salaria-pavo.html Citation No. 8: “Salaria pavo”, Written by Kasper Hareskov Tygesen, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by ReefApp. https://reefapp.net/en/encyclopedia/salaria-pavo Citation No. 9: “Peacock Blenny: Salaria pavo”, Written by Antonio Di Natale, Murat Bilecenoglu, Michel Bariche, Can Bizsel, Enric Massuti, Jeffrey Williams, & Matthew Craig, & Published in 2014. Published by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/185175/1776635 Citation No. 10: “Do Blenny Fish Sleep? Interesting Facts About Blenny Fish”, Written by Kai Brooks, & Published on November 28th, 2025. Published by Knolcrest Lodge. https://knolcrestlodge.com/do-blenny-fish-sleep-pk683/ Citation No. 11: “Ecological modulation of reproductive behaviour in the peacock blenny: a mini-review”, Written by J. L. Saraiva, D. Gonçalves, & R. F. Oliveira, & Published on May 15th, 2012. Published by Fish Physiology & Biochemistry. https://ise.usj.edu.mo/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Saraiva_et_al_2013.pdf Citation No. 12: “A male sexually dimorphic trait provides antimicrobials to eggs in blenny fish”, Written by Eva Giacomello, Daniela Marchini, & Maria B. Rasotto, & Published on May 26th, 2026. Published by Biology Letters. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1686180/ Citation No. 13: “Molecular and morphological description of Myxidium parvum (Cnidaria) from Salaria pavo (Blenniidae) in the Black Sea”, Written by C. T. Gürkanli, S. Okkay, Y. Çiftçi, & A. Özer, & Published on November 26th, 2021. Published by Parasitology International. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1383576921002385 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A striking photograph of the beautiful blue Baltic Sea. Credit to Michael Held. Modern technology allows us to easily find information about the history of any region. We can visualize what it looked like thousands and even millions of years ago and how it changed over the decades to finally be what we know today. This knowledge is acquired by analyzing data from sediment samples taken from the ground. This was the method used to establish the history of the Baltic Sea. Even though this particular sea is young, being only about 8,000 years old, it still has its own history and unique characteristics, which will be discussed in this article. The Baltic Sea was first a region covered entirely by an ice sheet. 20,000 years ago the ice glaciers originating from Scandinavia started spreading east and south, deepening the region by dragging large rocks and smaller pieces of stone and clay. The ice slowly melted, filling the created basin with water and forming what is now known as the Baltic Ice Lake. With the ice melting, the basin continued to fill with water until it started to overflow, causing the excess freshwater to travel directly into Skagerrak (strait between Denmark, Norway, and Sweden). When the outflow finally stopped, seawater was able to reach the lake through the newly created mid-Swedish channel. That is when the salinity levels allowed the bivalve Yoldia to flourish, thus creating the name Yoldia Sea, lasting a short period of time. A photograph of Portlandia arctica, formerly known as Yoldia arctica. This mussel used to colonize the area which modernly occupies the Baltic Sea. Credit to Amgueddfa Cymru & the National Museum of Wales. The next step in its history was the Ancylus Lake period - a time when the freshwater basin covered an area larger than today’s Baltic Sea. This period was also relatively short, as about 8,000 years ago, seawater flowed into the lake, creating what we know today - the Baltic Sea. An illustration showcasing the extent of the Ancylus Lake, along with major cities in the region. Note that Stockholm, as well as Helsinki would be underwater. Credit to GEOMAR. So, what makes this particular sea unique? The basin itself is about 1600 km long, with an average depth of 55 metres, the deepest point reaching 459 metres. It is one of the largest brackish inland seas by area. This means that this sea’s water contains more salinity than that of freshwater, but less than that of seawater. This particular characteristic is one of the most important pillars of shaping its biodiversity. Unlike other seas, the Baltic Sea has an exceptionally low biodiversity. Low salinity is caused by many freshwater points of flow (rivers) and narrow connections to the salty ocean. This means that most marine species cannot survive because the water is too fresh, and most freshwater species cannot survive because it is too salty. Therefore, there are a limited number of adaptable species that can thrive in this basin. The relatively young age of this sea also means that species have not had enough time to fully adapt to these unique conditions. The Baltic Sea is shallow and holds a relatively small volume of water, causing it to be highly sensitive to temperature changes and pollution. Any pollutants and chemicals that enter the sea remain trapped inside for decades - the narrow connection to the open ocean means that water exchange is extremely slow, taking it roughly 40 years to flush out. When it comes to tides, they are usually less than 10 centimeters, which makes it difficult to wash away debris and mix nutrients, having to rely on wind-driven currents to move water. On top of that, the Baltic Sea contains some of the largest human-caused marine dead zones in the world. In these zones, benthic life suffocates and dies, leaving an underwater oxygen dead zone populated only by anaerobic bacteria. The Baltic Sea is one of the most unique seas. Its low biodiversity doesn’t make it interesting for many marine biologists, however, many who decide to appreciate its beauty find that it has much more to offer than it shows. From its history to the species living in it and to many historical wonders that hide beneath it, in this series we will slowly unravel its beauty, hoping to shed light on this undermined basin. Tales from the Baltic - a vow to the currents that carried my childhood. A photograph depicting the haunting beauty of the Baltic Sea. Credit to Public Domain. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “The Origin of the Baltic Sea”, Written by Robert Spielhagen, and Published at an Unknown Date. Credit to GEOMAR. https://www.geomar.de/en/discover/the-origin-of-the-baltic-sea Citation No. 2: “State and Evolution of the Baltic Sea (1952-2005)”, Written by Rainer Feistel, Günther Nausch, and Norbert Wasmund, and Published in 2008. Credit to John Wiley & Sons. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rainer-Feistel/publication/275645919_Feistel_2008_frontmatter/ Citation No. 3: “Treatise of Marine Ecology and Paleoecology - Chapter 24: Baltic Sea”, Written by Sven G. Segerstråle, and Published on December 1st, 1957. Credit to The Geological Society of America. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/books/edited-volume/73/chapter-abstract/3787153/Chapter-24-Baltic-Sea?redirectedFrom=fulltext Citation No. 4: “Water in motion”, Written by Unknown, and Published at an Unknown Date. Published by MarineFinland. https://itameri.fi/en/nature-and-how-it-changes/characteristics-of-water/hydrology/. 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Today’s chart is a primordial 169-year-old map of the South Atlantic Ocean, featuring both the coasts of South America & the coast of West Africa. The chart is fairly large, at 51 inches long by 38 inches wide. It is in beautiful condition for its age, apart from a small hole in one of its compass roses. Its blemishes & soiling are consistent with use at sea. In today’s article, we are going to examine this antique map, discuss it, & analyze it. With that being said, let’s delve into the visually magnificent, cool, & unforgiving waters of the South Atlantic Ocean! The Chart A 169-year-old antique nautical chart produced by James Imray & his son, James Frederick Imray. Credit to raremaps.com. This chart features most of South America, part of West Africa, the South Atlantic Ocean, & the Eastern Pacific Ocean, from the Equator to 65° South latitude. It is packed with information, & includes multiple archipelagos such as the Galapagos, South Shetland, South Orkney, Sandwich, & Falkland Islands. It is beautifully decorated, with intricate calligraphy all over. 10 compass roses are littered across the map, which would have been used by navigators to orient themselves as to what their position was. In the Atlantic, we can see “Reid's Shoal (1842)”, located near Lagoa dos Patos, Brazil, while in the Pacific we can see “Powsland Reef? (1853)”. Coral reefs, rocky reefs, & shoals pose many issues to passing ships, as they may cause hull damage to unsuspecting vessels which strike them. Hull damage can catastrophically alter the structural integrity of the ship, & may cause it to capsize & sink. As such, it is of critical importance to have these properly labelled. Weather conditions are featured prominently in the chart, with the infamous Drake Passage labelled with “Storms and almost constant rain prevail here”. Other areas, such as the South Sandwich Islands, are labelled with “High Land covered with snow”. South of 60° Latitude, reports of field ice from various years can be seen. Field ice is defined as an expanse of sea ice or lake ice on a body of water which is so large, that the other side may not be seen from the masthead of a ship. It is relatively flat, & according to the Manual of Ice, must be more than 6.3 miles (10 kilometers) across. This would have been extraordinarily useful to any sailor traversing icy Antarctic waters, as field ice could severely damage or even sink a vessel. Information about currents near Brazil & Cape Horn can be found on the left side of the map, while information about the Lagullas Current, South African Current, & Southern Connecting Current can be found on the right side. According to the chart, the Lagullas Current is set westward around the Cape of Good Hope, & varies in velocity. The South African Current is a strong broad extension of the Lagullas Current, running northwest. The Southern Connecting Current flows to the east between 30° & 40° South latitude. It is also broad, & quite strong. Illustrations of Tristan de Cunha, West Falkland, Gough Island, False Cape Horn & the Cape Horn can all be seen near the bottom. Each coastline is drawn with attention to detail. An Analysis of the Chart This chart was manufactured in 1857, by the Scottish pair of hydrographers James Imray & his son, James Frederick Imray. Imray Sr. began his business as a bookseller in 1818. He shared his office space with a nautical chart seller, Robert Blachford, & eventually went into business with his successor, Michael Blachford. He eventually bought Blachford out in 1846, & brought his son in as a partner in 1854. In 1899, the firm was sold to Norie & Wilson. Nowadays, the combined firms trade under the name Imray, Laurie, Norie, & Wilson, keeping the name alive over a century later. The map was created & published in London, as that is where the cartographic office of Imray was located. The chart is titled “General Chart of the South Atlantic or Ethiopic Ocean From The Equator to 65° South Latitude according to the latest Surveys & Observations”. Upon reviewing the concise details printed, publishing house, & era that it was manufactured in, this chart was likely manufactured using lithography. Lithography is a method of printing that arose in the 1820s, & remained the most popular method of printing in both color & grayscale until the early 1960s, when more efficient methods became available. Although it has existed since the mid-1790s, it took a long time to gain popularity in Europe due to technical difficulties. It only began gaining commercial popularity in the early 1820s. It is still used for certain kinds of printing today, such as fine art printing, however, digital printing is far more common. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the image is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho-press. Afterward, an exact copy of what was supposed to be printed is revealed. It is extremely useful for making high-resolution prints in high quantities. A sunlit photograph of Cape Horn, Tierra del Fuego, Chile. This area is prominently featured on today’s chart. Credit to Wikimedia Commons. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Rare Maps, a California rare & antique maps store. To purchase this chart, antique atlases, or other cartographic objects, please visit www.raremaps.com. To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Rare Maps, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

An idyllic photograph of a sea arch in Anguilla, a British Overseas Territory. Credit to bThere Magazine. Today’s chart is an ancient 375-year-old map of the Caribbean, from Puerto Rico to Trinidad. The chart is moderately sized, at 20 inches long by 16 inches wide. It features the Caribbean Sea, & numerous Caribbean islands. It is in brilliant condition for its age, with few spots or signs of wear along the edges. In today’s article, we are going to examine this antique map, discuss it, & perform an analysis of it. With that being said, let’s delve into the idyllic, tropical waters of the Caribbean Sea! The Map A 375-year-old chart of the Caribbean Sea. Credit to cartographer & hydrographer Jan Janssonius. This chart focuses on the Caribbean Sea, featuring Puerto Rico, Anguilla, Saint Martin, Saint-Barthélemy, Antigua, Guadalupe, Dominica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, & numerous other small islands. It is richly decorated, with numerous illustrations of ships, an elaborate cartouche, & an illustration of a person along with the map scale in the corner. Each ship is unique, with varying sails, flags, & colours of wooden hulls. The Paria peninsula of Venezuela has numerous mountains drawn, along with a plethora of labelled coastal settlements. An Analysis of the Map This chart was produced in 1650 by cartographer Johannes Janssonius. Jan Jansson was an esteemed hydrographer & cartographer of the 17th century, born in 1588 in Arnhem, Gelderland, The Netherlands. During this era, the Dutch ruled the cartographic market. Born to a father who owned a publishing house, he was exposed to the art of cartography & publishing at a young age. In 1612, at the age of 24, he wed the daughter of Jodocus Hondius, entering the cartographically important Hondius family in the process. Upon marrying, he moved to Amsterdam. Janssonius published his first map in 1616, influenced heavily by cartographer Willem Blaeu. In the 1630’s, Jansson partnered with their brother-in-law Henricus Hondius, to produce the 11-volume Atlas Major. Unfortunately, he passed away in 1664, upon which his business was overtaken by his son-in-law Johannes Waesberger, & his other his son-in-law Elizée Weyerstraet. The chart is titled “Insula S. iuan De Puerto Rico Caribes uvel Canibasum Insulae”. Considering the age of the map, it was most likely manufactured using the engraving method. In this technique, there are 4 roles, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually, there would only be 1-2 plates used, however, it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where the ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Thereafter, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. The result should be a detailed chart with colour, & depth, useful to any sailor of the era traversing the high seas. A photograph of Mayaro Beach, Trinidad. Mayaro Beach is a popular beach located in Southeastern Trinidad known for its stunning natural beauty. Credit to Paul Oreggio/Getty Images. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Rare Maps, a California rare & antique maps store. To purchase this chart, antique atlases, or other cartographic objects, please visit www.raremaps.com. To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Rare Maps, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of the Space Needle as seen from downtown Seattle. This prominent building is featured on today’s nautical chart, & is easily visible from the coastline. Credit to Insight Pest Solutions. Today’s map is a relatively modern 58-year-old nautical chart of Seattle, Washington. The chart is fairly large, at 33.7 inches long by 46 inches wide. It features the entire Seattle Harbour as it was in 1966, along with depth measurements for the entire area. It is in amazing condition for its age, with minor signs of wear near the edges. In today’s article, we are going to examine this antique map, discuss it, & perform an analysis of it. With that being said, let’s delve into the cold, unforgiving waters of the Pacific Northwest! The Map A vintage nautical chart of Seattle Harbour, Washington. Credit to the United States Coast & Geodetic Survey. This chart focuses on the Seattle Harbour, as well as the surrounding Elliott Bay. It includes important information about water depth, local channels, marine life, lighthouses, buoys, coastal features, headlands, & roads in & around Seattle. It also includes important islands such as Harbor Island. There are approximately 4 compass roses littered on the map, useful to any sailor looking to traverse the harbour. Information about submerged rocks, ruins, or rocky coastlines would have aided mariners in avoiding collisions. Brief information about local marine life can be seen, with remarks about dolphins in the harbour, & seagrass on the seabed. At the bottom of the chart, a table with tidal information for Seattle can be seen. According to it, the average tide level is approximately 6.6 feet. Below it, information about abbreviations for different coastal features, buoys, & coastal light sources can be found. To the right of this table, another table containing information on water depth in the Duwamish Waterway can be found, based on surveys by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers conducted in May of 1966. A publisher’s ink stamp can be seen at the very bottom of the chart in blue ink, indicating that the chart was published on June 10th, 1967. A second seller’s ink stamp can be seen to the right, illustrating that after being published, it found its way into the hands of Max Kuner Co. Nautical Instruments, Charts, & Technical books. Max Kuner Co. was originally started by mariner & watchmaker Max Kuner in 1897 in the Seattle Harbour. Upon his passing in the 1930’s, his wife, Anna Kuner, took over the business. After her passing in 1943, it was sold to Tom Williamson, a longtime employee of theirs. Eventually, a returning WW2 Navy Veteran named Leonard Schrock opened a shop in Downtown Seattle. When Tom passed away, Leonard purchased the store. For many years, both stores co-existed in waterfront Seattle, until both were consolidated into a single location. Modernly, the store is called Captain’s Nautical is Captain's Nautical Books & Charts, & continues to fulfill orders online. A photograph depicting Captain’s Nautical Books & Charts storefront prior to it being moved online. Credit to Captain’s Nautical Books & Charts. Additionally, the chart is coloured, with yellow being used to indicate land, light blue used to indicate coast, & white used to indicate water. An Analysis of the Map This chart was designed by the U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey, one of the precursors to the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. The United States Coastal & Geodetic Survey was the first scientific agency established by the United States Government, established in 1807. The Agency was unfortunately abolished in 1970, when it was merged with several other agencies to create the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. The chart was released in 1967. It is titled “Seattle Harbour: Elliott Bay & Duwamish Bay”. This chart was originally manufactured for civilian as well as military use. It is extremely accurate, with headlands, seabed composition, rocks, piers, & roads depicted accurately. Upon considering the incredible quality & detail of the chart, the publishing house it belongs to, & the time it was manufactured in, it was manufactured using lithography. Lithography is a method of printing that arose in the 1820s, & remained the most popular method of printing in both color & grayscale until the early 1960s, when more efficient methods became available. Although it has existed since the mid-1790s, it took a long time to gain popularity in Europe due to technical difficulties, & only began gaining commercial popularity in the early 1820s. It is still widely used for certain kinds of printing, such as fine art printing today, however, digital printing is far more common. Considering the time this chart was manufactured, it was likely manufactured using offset lithography. During the printing process, an inked metal, often aluminum or tin plate with an image or text is printed onto a rubber blanket before being transferred, or offset, to its final medium such as paper, wool, tin, cardboard, or leather. A photograph of a dolphin spotted in Puget Sound off the coast of Seattle, Washington. Today’s nautical chart indicates different areas of the harbour where dolphins have been historically spotted. Credit to Fox13 Seattle. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Rare Maps, a California rare & antique maps store. To purchase this chart, antique atlases, or other cartographic objects, please visit www.raremaps.com. To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Rare Maps, as we do not have a partnership with them. 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A photograph taken of the verdant lush Great Abaco Island, featured in the Bahamian extension of today’s map. Credit to seaglassfound.com. Today’s nautical chart is a timeworn 189-year-old map of the Eastern Coast of the United States, from Florida to Massachusetts. The chart is extraordinarily large, being 122 inches long & 29 inches wide. It includes a rare extension featuring a chart of the Bahamas. It is in fantastic condition for its time, & has minor soiling consistent with use during sailing. In today’s article, we are going to examine this antique map, discuss it, & perform an analysis of it. With that being said, let’s delve into the cool waters of the Atlantic! The Chart A magnificent antique Nautical Chart of the East Coast of the United States, as well as the Bahamas. It was first designed & published by Edmund M. Blunt in 1826, & later revised & republished in 1837. Credit to raremaps.com This chart focuses on the East Coast of the United States with an extension into the Bahamas. It includes numerous important harbours, estuaries, & capes, such as Charleston Harbour, Port Royal, St. Mary’s River, Cape Fear, Cape Lookout, Cape Hatteras, Winyah Bay, Lewiston Bay, Havana, & St. Augustine. It also includes several important islands, such as Cumberland Island & Amelia Island. There are approximately 16 compass roses strewn across the map. There are numerous descriptions for different locations such as “Dead shells”, “The river lies in deepest water”, “White sand with black and yellow specks and fine white shells”, “This cape appears like a round hill, “Sunken rock”, “Sand & shells”, & “The current here is directed by the wind”. Each of these remarks would have been extraordinarily useful to sailors of the era, & provide a unique insight into the natural landscape. The Bahamas extension is a rare addition, which extends from Florida to the Bahamas. The extension contains much information such as information about water depth, shore composition, local currents, & even lighthouses. A small lighthouse titled “Revolving light”, can be seen on the southern tip of Great Abaco Island. Another lighthouse can be seen near modern-day Nassau. Moving up the East Coast, a comment about the Highlands of Navesink can be seen. “There are two lighthouses on the Highlands of Navesink, the northern one showing a fixed, the southern one a revolving light.” Long Island can be prominently seen at the extreme right of the map. The chart is in amazing condition, with minor soiling consistent with being used on a ship. An Analysis of the Charts A photograph of the cartographer who designed the chart, Edmund March Blunt. Credit to the Blunt Family. This chart was designed, & created by Edmund March Blunt (1770 to 1862). The chart was originally illustrated in 1826, & had additions in 1837. Edmund March Blunt was an American cartographer, chartmaker, hydrographer, & bookseller, best known for his guide “The American Pilot”, which detailed every American port at the time of publishing in 1796. In response to this immense success, he later published 21 subsequent revisions, each with important updates. He is widely considered to be one of the most influential hydrographers of the 19th century in the United States. It is titled “To The Members Of The Nautical Institution And Ship-Masters' Society Of The City Of New York, This Chart, Extending From Lat. 40°15 N., Long. 72°15 W., to Lat. 22°35 N., Long. 80°25 W., Is Respectfully Dedicated / By Their Obedient Servant Edmund M. Blunt . . . 1826 . . . Additions to 1837”. Although originally dedicated to the Marine Society of New York, the title was later changed to reflect the founding of the Nautical Institution & Ship Master’s Society. Interestingly, this chart was published in a series by Blunt’s Publishing House from 1820 to 1827. It was originally published in 1826, & later revised in 1837. This chart was originally manufactured for civilian use. It is extremely accurate for the era, with scarcely a headland, island, reef, or rock being left off. Upon considering the incredible quality & detail of the chart, the publishing house it belongs to, & the time it was manufactured in, it was manufactured using lithography. Lithography is a method of printing that arose in the 1820s, & remained the most popular method of printing in both color & grayscale until the early 1960s, when more efficient methods became available. Although it has existed since the mid-1790s, it took a long time to gain popularity in Europe due to technical difficulties, & only began gaining commercial popularity in the early 1820s. It is still widely used for certain kinds of printing, such as fine art printing today, however, digital printing is far more common. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the image is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho-press. Afterward, an exact copy of what was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Rare Maps, a California rare & antique maps store. To purchase this chart, antique atlases, or other cartographic objects, please visit www.raremaps.com. To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Rare Maps, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcasts Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Today’s nautical chart is an ancient 185-year-old map of Australia & Tasmania. Australia was first recorded in European records by Dutch Captain Willem Janszoon, who was sailing aboard the Duyfken. Complete maps of the continent did not exist until the 1810’s, though partial maps were available before then. The map is moderately sized at 31.5 inches wide & 22 inches long. Shockingly for its time, the chart contains many vibrant colours such as pink, blue, teal, yellow, & orange. It contains numerous place names of different coastal settlements & towns along Australia, as well as information about local reefs, islands, & shoals. In today’s article, we are going to examine this antique map, discuss it, & perform an analysis of it. With that being said, let’s delve into the warm tropical waters of Australia! The Chart A striking antique nautical chart of Australia & Tasmania designed & published by James Wyld in 1841. Credit to raremaps.com. This chart focuses on Australia & Tasmania. Tasmania was referred to as Van Diemen’s Land, from 1642 to 1856. It was named after Anthony van Diemen, who was governor-general of the Dutch East Indies from 1636 to 1645. Tasmania was officially discovered by Abel Tasman under the commission of Van Diemen, & named the island in his honour. The chart was produced in London, England. It showcases many islands, shoals, & even the shipwreck of the HMS Pandora in addition to the primary landmasses. The HMS Pandora was a Porcupine-class British Naval Vessel used for hunting down the mutineers aboard the HMS Bounty. The ship wrecked on the Great Barrier Reef in 1791, with 78 of the 134 stationed aboard returning home safely, & the rest suffering a watery doom. Knowing the locations of the local shoals & islands would have been significant to any sailor of the era not meeting the same fate as the crew aboard the HMS Pandora. In addition to information about local shoals, it also features information on the local topography with comments such as “Cliff goes from 40 feet to 60 feet high”, “Sandy hills sprinkled with vegetation”, & “Very low coast thinly wooded”. It showcases dozens of place names from all over Australia & Tasmania. In Australia, it includes the 18 counties in New South Wales, & the 14 counties near Perth, then referred to as Western Australia. South Australia is depicted in the chart, though Victoria appears as an unorganized territory called “Australia Felix”. Tasmania is depicted with 9 counties on its eastern side. The map uses information gathered from early expeditions into Australia’s interior, particularly in its depiction of what is now Victoria, then referred to as “Australia Felix”, & the southern areas of New South Wales. Some of the results hail from the early expeditions of Sir Thomas Livingstone Mitchell, a Scottish surveyor & explorer known for his exploration of Australia. The chart is in fantastic condition for its time, with no creases, burns, yellowing, or brown spots. An Analysis of the Chart This chart was designed & produced by James Wyld the Elder, a British Geographer & Cartographer. Born in 1790, Wyld Sr. began his career as a mapmaker under William Faden. When Faden retired, Wyld Sr. took over, acquiring many plates in the process. He often signed his work “Successor to Faden”, which can be used when attempting to distinguish his maps from his sons. He was one of the most prolific mapmakers of the era, & was named geographer to King George IV, William IV, & HRH the Duke of York. He was one of the founding members of the Royal Geographical Society in 1830, the same year his son took over his publishing house. Unfortunately, James Wyld the Elder passed away at the age of 46 on October 14th, 1836, as a result of overwork. His son, also named James Wyld, took up the business following his passing, & would go on to be Geographer to Queen Victoria, design a globe attraction 19 meters in diameter which was placed in Leicester Square, & have a successful career in Parliament. Interestingly, this chart was published as part of a series of maps of Australia. This series, published by Wyld’s Publishing House, began in 1833, & gradually showcased more information as more expeditions were launched into the interior & along the coastline. It is of great historical importance, & certainly played a role in the rapid development of Australia. This chart was manufactured primarily for civilian use. What it does depict is fairly accurate, though the majority of the Australian interior is left blank. Upon reviewing the quality, the publishing house, & time that the map was manufactured in, this chart was most likely manufactured using lithography. Lithography is a method of printing that arose in the 1820s, & remained the most popular method of printing in both color & grayscale until the early 1960s, when more efficient methods became available. Although it has existed since the mid-1790s, it took a long time to gain popularity in Europe due to technical difficulties, & only began gaining commercial popularity in the early 1820s. It is still widely used for certain kinds of printing, such as fine art printing today; however, digital printing is far more common. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the image is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho-press. Afterward, an exact copy of what was supposed to be printed is revealed. It is extremely useful for making high-resolution prints in high quantities. A modern photograph of Hobart, the capital of Tasmania. This photograph depicts Battery Point, Sandy Bay, the city of Hobart, & kunanyi / Mount Wellington. Credit to Loic Le Guilly. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Rare Maps, a California rare & antique maps store. To purchase this chart, antique atlases, or other cartographic objects, please visit www.raremaps.com. To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Rare Maps, as we do not have a partnership with them. 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