Search Results

California’s Pacific coast is one of the most biodiverse and abundant ecosystems worldwide, teaming with almost 2000 species of microorganisms, plants, fish, marine mammals, turtles, invertebrates, and seabirds supported by a Mediterranean climate. Its famous offshore, underwater, and coastal rock formations date back to the Cretaceous period and help subsidize this special bionetwork, making the state’s ocean waters and sea life sacred and unique. Unfortunately, California’s precious coastal ecosystem also faces massive threats in the vein of climate change/global warming, the devastation of kelp forests, ocean acidification, algal blooms, and habitat destruction; sounding the alarm for the time-sensitive need for human intervention, conservation management, and awareness. The Pacific Tide series highlights monthly oceanic events occurring on the California coast and/or portrait important species who call the Pacific coastline waters home emphasizing the importance of conserving this critical ecosystem. In this month’s installment of The Pacific Tide, we announce the desperate call to save Eastern Northern Pacific (ENP) gray whales off the coast of California experiencing the lowest population numbers since the 1970s while exploring the causalities for this population mortality, including climate change and California’s contribution: freight vessel noise and ship strikes. We also highlight California’s efforts to save the whales with new laws and initiatives geared toward the decrease of vessel noise and lower ship speeds; and the use of technology and AI to create a safer Pacific Blue Corridor, hoping to promote an ENP gray whale population boost. Save the Whales 2.0 'Nostalgia' is at a cultural boom in the 2020s with everything from food, fashion, music, television, and films turning back the clock, creating déja vu moments for the generation hitting middle age. However, history shouldn’t always be repeated and recycled. The 1970’s, 80’s and 90’s all saw movements to “Save the Whales!” highlighting the atrocities of whale hunting, overfishing and the rapid onset of climate change/global warming. Conservationists, advocates, and protestors held rallies, donned buttons, posted banners, sold whale-sound compact discs, and pleaded to the United States Congress; resulting in monumental laws and widespread protections to rehabilitatedeclining whale population numbers. Although some saw these movements as ‘hippie’ and ‘granola’; the fallout was profound. 2026, the year of nostalgia, is raising the alarm to dust off the protest buttons because it is time to save the whales… again. The Eastern North Pacific gray whale (ENP) is the gentle giant calling the Pacific Ocean off the coasts of Canada, North America, and Mexico home, often extolled for their ‘friendly’ disposition and habit of venturing in close proximity to shores and whale-spotting tourist boats. Measuring at 45-50 feet and tipping the scales at an average of 36-45 tons; ENP gray whales have inhabited the oceans for over 200,000 years, being the ultimate survivor in the ever-changing death game of planet Earth and its inhabitants. This hasn’t come easily, as ENP gray whales partake in the longest migration trek of all animals at over 10,000 mile’s feeding in the cold Arctic waters off the coast of Alaska before traveling down the coastline of Canada and most famously the Pacific Northwest and California in order to reach the tropical Mexican lagoons that serve as nurseries to ENP females birthing calves. The months from January to June experience a spring migration reversal, returning to the ice-cold Arctic waters. An informational graphic depicting population & distribution information for the Pacific Gray Whale (Eschrichtius robustus). Credit to NOAA Fisheries. There is more to ENP gray whales than just being the centerfold model to a tourist’s camera; as they are absolutely critical to oceanic ecosystems. ENP gray whales are predominantly bottom-feeders, rotating onto their sides and inhaling the seabed, dining on planktonic amphipods before exhaling the silt, acting as the plow farmers of the sea minus the fashionable overalls and John Deere tractors. This feeding cycle releases bottom nutrients that rise during ocean upwellings, feeding upper- water marine mammals and fish. Whale feces also contain key nutrients that are consumed by plankton and algae, which in themselves form the building blocks of the ocean by converting carbon dioxide to oxygen, ultimately making whales the biggest endorsers of biodiversity in the oceans. The light on these usually resilient ocean ally kings is beginning to dim (again) with experts removing rose-colored glasses and becoming skeptical that ENP gray whales will survive even in the short term, “I don’t think we’re ever going to see an Arctic that can support 25,000 gray whales again, at least not in my lifetime”, Josh Stewart, an assistant professor at Oregon State University’s Marine Mammal Institute dejectedly confirmed. ENP gray whale populations are declining at rates that are impossible to adapt to, being at the lowest since the 1970s. Since 2016, ENP gray whales have declined by half from approximately 27,000 to 12,900 by current estimates, with most recent mother-calf pairs off the coast of California at a low-end dire count of 85, which, if it persists, unequivocally cannot sustain the species. 690 ENP gray whales were found dead off the Pacific coast between 2019-2023, with 2026 figures for ENP gray whale strandings already troubling scientists only midway through the year. 33 dead whales have washed off the Puget Sound, with an additional 13 in the San Francisco Bay by June, totaling 51 by early summer; making researchers fear that 2026 will be the worst year on record for ENP gray whale deaths. What is causing this downshift in ENP gray whale populations sparking a 2020s save the whales movement? Two key factors prevail; both putting the guilt on mankind: (1) global warming/climate change and (2) freight vessel noise and ship strikes. Although ENP gray whales have survived climate disasters thus far; current conditions are declining far faster than the whales can adapt with the biggest losses occurring in the Arctic feeding waters where glaciers are melting at Olympic runner speeds, resulting in lesser amphipods to feed ENP gray whales. Without a proper diet, ENP gray whale females can’t produce enough blubber needed to migrate, give birth or to feed calves that require 50 gallons of milk a day during the 8 months of nursing after a 12-month pregnancy. ENP gray whales have amended to this climate change by restricting or eliminating births entirely being detrimental to the species and are often found emaciated and malnourished when stranded on shores. “We thought we were seeing a bit of rebound, but it was so short-lived,” Josh Calambokidis, a marine biologist studying gray whales, reported, “Rather than alternating between boom and bust, a more accurate description of the whales’ trajectory is ‘boom, bust, bust, bust’. Climate change is a borderless, global issue with California not necessarily holding the reins; but the state is the primary leader in ENP gray whale ship strikes and vessel noise declining the populations…and this is a crown California is likely not proud to wear. California: The Worst Traffic on Land and in the Sea Navigating Californian streets means hurdling a cluster of multiple lanes, bumper-to-bumper traffic, horns blasting, music filling the air, traffic lights causing complication and cars zipping in-and-out with no respect for motorist laws. Imagine a truck nearing contact with your car but being unable to hear your passenger’s warning; or becoming utterly lost because the GPS directions blend into the noise pollution. Transfer this hectic disorder to the Pacific Blue Corridor: the ancient migratory route of the ENP gray whales off the California coast. ENP gray whales have traveled these once calm waters for several Millenia but now face modern-day traffic of cargo ships, tankers, and even yachts. California’s waters hold one of the busiest cargo vessel traffic routes and is the home to the world’s largest container port and center of US economical trade located in San Pedro near Los Angeles. Northern California also makes the list with the Port of Oakland in the San Francisco Bay earning the title of fourth busiest port. This means the Pacific waterways traveled by ENP gray whales is now congested with ship traffic and noise stress. An informational graphic on noise pollution in the Pacific Ocean. Credit to Maritime Cyprus. While migrating on the Pacific Blue Corridor, ENP gray whales rely on their sense of hearing other whales to circumnavigate distance and pinpoint their current location, receive warnings of threats, and evaluate other critical information akin to a whale traffic news report. ENP gray whales emit six low-frequency calls (between 100 Hz and 2000 Hz) to maintain communications with other whales, but when these are acoustically masked by ship vessel noise in the marinescape; whales cannot hear their calves, pods, or environment, resulting in elevated stress, directional distraction on the migratory route, and in worst cases: ship strikes. A photograph of a tropical whale on the bow bulb of cargo vessel Nedlloyd Pantanal. Credit to ifaw.org. ENP gray whales off the coast of California are struggling to coexist with the vessel noise but with unfavorable penalties to the species. Whales have been recorded vocalizing at higher frequencies virtually ‘shouting’ to be heard by other whales or often remaining silent as they ‘freeze’ documenting the vessels as threats. Fecal matter gathered from whales coming into close contact with ships and the freight noise traffic show elevated levels of cortisol: the stress hormone. Data congregated in the Pacific Blue Corridor found unhealthy high levels of fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGC) directly proportionate to the vessel traffic and marinescape noise at the time of collection. Vessel noise and traffic also distract whale migrations creating an element of fear with ENP gray whales responding by discarding the usual corridor and becoming lost. This fear response has proven to cause metabolic changes and breathing irregularities comparable to a panic attack in a human. Returning to climate change, the absence of abundant feeding in the Arctic has forced starving and vulnerable ENP gray whales to go off-course in a desperate search for a meal, swimming closer to the Californian shores or directly in the path of oncoming cargo vessels resulting in an alarming rise in ship strikes. By May 2026, 11 ENP gray whales were found dead in the San Francisco Bay with two being from ship strikes averaging a 40% strike rate echoing 2025 with nine out of 26 whales being ship fatalities. The Bay Area is especially high-risk for whales with a minimum of 18% mortality rate. Environmental hearing loss resulting from California’s ship freight traffic is directly diminishing the ENP gray whale population signaling the call to save the whales. A whale’s sense of hearing assists in finding mates, migration orientation and avoiding predators. Marinescape noise is elevating stress hormones, deteriorating immune systems and overall health and ultimately: leading to the death of the species. California Steps Up to Save the Whales Against Marinescape Noise and Vessel Strikes California is the poster child state leading all things tech and promoting anything and everything ‘green’ in support of wildlife. It is no surprise that the Golden State would mesh the two and be on the leading edge of innovation and initiatives to help save the ENP gray whales. The simplest and most logical solution to help save the whales is for cargo vessels to reduce speeds or even re-route during the migratory season in the Pacific Blue Corridor. Vessels dipping traveling speeds to 10 knots (only a 10% speed decline) can reduce ship strikes by 50% and cloak the marinescape noise by 38% which significantly allows whales to hear other whales and no longer have to call at higher frequencies. Reducing speeds benefits both sea and air as less fuel usage means lower CO2 emissions and fuel savings for freight companies. California has turned to the legal system to promote this idea; suing the current presidential administration for failing to adequately protect marine life in the Pacific shipping lanes. 2025 saw Governor Gavin Newsom passing Assembly Bill 14 which provides state governmental aid to programs working with vessel shipping freight companies to reduce speeds and created the Ocean Protection Council (OPC) to help save the whales. This bill was expanded in 2026 covering not only the entire California coast; but northwards to Oregon and south to the Mexico. Government officials have also raised the idea of shifting cargo shipping lanes away from the Pacific Blue Corridor but this was rejected by the U.S. Naval Air Warfare Center as such a move would bring vessels close to the Navy’s largest missile testing site. The headlining program promoting reduction of vessel speeds is California’s Blue Whales and Blue Skies: a state-funded, financial-incentive program encouraging the shipping lane slow-down to 10 knots or re-navigation. Blue Whales and Blue Skies accepts both freight vessel companies and auxiliary businesses using vessels for trade promising to only utilize participating freight vessel lines. Although voluntary (advocates are fighting to make Blue Whales and Blue Skies mandatory), by 2025, 76 companies clocked into the Blue Whales and Blue Skies program with 700 individual vessels following the new ‘speed limit’. In July 2026, the program has peaked at 60 participating shipping lanes and with increased vessel collaboration hitting 80%. 2026 also announced new partner ambassadors like California’s Santa Barbara Zoo and the Oakland Bay Port joining the Blue Whales and Blue Skies initiative. Maersk, the primary shipping vessel freightliner in California’s waters, is a leading member of Blue Whales and Blue Skiesgoing above-and-beyond the program not only reducing speed but using digital route-planning tools to find new corridors that avoid whales. Maersk also donates any monetary compensation received from participating in the program back to Blue Whales and Blue Skies and the state of California. Crews on Maersk’s vessels contribute by reporting any whale sightings to conservation databases using the “Whale Alert” app strengthening California’s understanding of the whale migrations. California’s residents are also encouraged to help save ENP gray whales with the “Whale Spotter” app available on iPhone and Android, where a once-in-a-lifetime whale encounter can feed data in real time to scientists and ship operators helping to save the whales versus just being a clout post on social media for ‘likes’. California + AI = Saving the Whales Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a polarizing topic with arguments sizzling on both sides, showing support or being adamantly against its rapid rise. California is using AI for good and harnessing its technology to save the whales. San Franscisco, the home of techies and the highest whale ship strike morality numbers; is leading the helm with 2026’s pilot program, Whale Spotter which uses thermal infrared cameras to scan the San Francisco Bay capturing any water changes resultant of whale spouting, whale body temperatures or whale sightings; then signaling a horn heard by vessel captains up to two nautical miles (7 kilometers) warning them to decrease speeds or change course. AI analyzes this captured camera data, comparing it to 15 years’ worth of images and research, and distinguishes whales from any other marinescape occurrence. False negatives are eliminated within 30 seconds by scientists serving behind the cameras. These data sets are forwarded to the US Coast Guard’s Vessel Traffic Report and instantly posted on the Whale Safe platform used by vessel ship captains, mariners and ferry operators. Whale Spotter’s cameras run 24/7 through the most trepid weather conditions and are already monitoring on an Angel Island Coast Guard tower and a ferry that travels between San Francisco and Vallejo; with plans to expand cameras to the Golden Gate Bridge and Alcatraz. California’s Whale Spotter has garnered attention in the US Congress, with California Representative Sam Liccardo hoping policymakers create a “whale desk [that] will protect these magnificent creatures and help mariners avoid costly, harrowing collisions.” Buoys gently floating in white-capped ocean waters is not anunusual sight; but there has been an upgrade to the old standard with new state-of-the-art acoustic buoys specifically for the Save the Whales movement. At the forefront of this new oceanic technological marvel is Whale Safe, a program created by the cooperative work by UC Santa Cruz, UC Santa Barbara, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Texas A&M University at Galveston, University of Washington, and the NOAA Southwest Fisheries Science Center. Whale Safe - which is already up-and-running in both the San Francisco Bay and Santa Barbara Channel - employs acoustic monitoring buoys that instantaneously capture whale sounds and calls, downloads this marinescape information to an AI-supported program that compares new data to previously collected sets and aligns the whale sounds to oceanic outliers such as changes in water temperatures or even water PH. Whale Safe is then able to create simulations that can predict the migrations and movements of ENP gray whales, forwarding this information to mariners using a ‘Whale Presence Rating’ with real-time alerts from changes in whale concentrations. An acoustic monitoring buoy in a Santa Barbara Channel shipping lane. This buoy provides real-time data to the Whale-Safe system. Credit to the Benioff Ocean Initiative. Whale Safe is still in its infancy, with some kinks to smooth only ‘hearing’ generalized whale calls; but depending on conditions, whale sex, etc.; one whale can make a variety of calls or a pod can make none at all. Plus, this detection doesn’t echolocate the exact location of the whale(s), making it unconfirmable if whales are indeed swimming in a vessel shipping lane. Whale Safe continues to work hand-in-hand with shipping companies in respect to their bottom line but also aims to save the whales. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has also discharged a system of free-floating acoustic buoys that are more easily gathered and relocated up-and-down the coast of California to gather whale data in a vastly larger spatial coverage area at one time. These acoustic buoys drift for several weeks before being collected and data is distributed in a maritime traffic report to both vessel crews and ocean conservationists. Shipping in California’s Pacific Blue Corridor is not slowing down and is expected to increase by 245% by 2050, which is an especially injurious outlook for the fate of the ENP gray whales. “Shipping is not going to disappear”, notes Daniel Zitterbart a chief scientist at Whale Spotter. “We need to have tech that allows us to use the ocean, but also allows the whales to go about their lives”. It is imperative that California continues to use its resources to make the Pacific waters safer for ENP gray whales and avoid oceanic roadkill. “Every day is a nail-biter…This new system will save lives”, David McCauley, a marine ecologist with UC Santa Barbara, adds. We must all work together to save the whales…again. Directories/Credits 1: “Eastern North Pacific Gray Whales Continue Decline After Downturn During Unusual Mortality Event”, Written by Southwest Fisheries Science Center. Published on June 18, 2025 Updated on June 25, 2025 by NOAA Fisheries https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/eastern-north-pacific-gray-whales-continue-decline-after-downturn-during-unusual 2: “Gray Whale Strandings Up to 30 After Additional Whales Found Along Coast”, Written by Elizabeth Wiley. Published on June 17, 2026 by King5 Seattle News https://www.king5.com/article/news/local/pets-and-animals/gray-whale-strandings-30-washington-coast-puget-sound/281-414233bf-5c62-4087-ab01-4e86dbc2b01e 3: “3 Months, 21 Dead Gray Whales: Why So Many Carcasses are Washing up on Pacific Shores”, Written by Evan Bush. Published on May 25, 2026 by NBC News https://www.nbcnews.com/science/environment/dead-gray-whales-pacific-rcna345675 4: “What Gray Whales are Telling Us About Ecosystem Change in the Pacific Arctic”, Written by Joshua D Stewart, Jacqueline M. Grebmeier, M Tim Tinker, John Calambokidis and Sue E Moore. Published on November 11, 2025 by Oxford Academic in Ices Journal of Marine Science https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/82/11/fsaf196/8316409 5: “Whale Deaths on Track to Make 2026 Among Deadliest Years on West Coast”, Written by Miyoko Sakashita. Published on May 28, 2026 by the Center for Biological Diversity https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/whale-deaths-on-track-to-make-2026-among-deadliest-years-on-west-coast-2026-05-28/ 6: “Squeak Up! I Can’t Hear You: Pilot Whales are Shouting to Hear Themselves Over Ship Noise”, Written by Vanessa Pirrota. Published on May 7, 2026 by The Conversation https://theconversation.com/squeak-up-i-cant-hear-you-pilot-whales-are-shouting-to-hear-themselves-over-ship-noise-282394?utm_medium=article_native_share&utm_source=theconversation.com 7: “Artificially Increased Noise Has Profound Effect on Gray Whale Calling Behavior”, Written by Unknown Author. Published on November 2, 2016 by NOAA Fisheries. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/artificially-increased-noise-has-profound-effect-gray-whale-calling-behavior 8: “Effects of Vessel Traffic and Ocean Noise on Gray Whale Stress Hormones”, Written by Leila S. Lemos, Joseph H. Haxel, Amy Olsen, Jonathan D. Burnett, Angela Smith, Todd E. Chandler, Sharon L. Nieukirk, Shawn E. Larson, Kathleen E. Hunt & Leigh G. Torres. Published on November 3, 2022 by Scientific Reports https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-14510-5 9: “Slowing Down for Whales: How California Is Making Its Busiest Shipping Lanes Safer”, Written by Unknown Author. Published on May 20, 2026 by the California Ocean Protection Council https://opc.ca.gov/2026/05/protecting-whales-from-ship-strikes/ 10: “A New Whale Detection Network Launches in San Francisco Bay, Alerting Ships in Real Time”. Written by The Associated Press. Published on May 20, 2026 by NBC News https://www.nbcnews.com/news/animal-news/new-whale-detection-network-launches-san-francisco-bay-alerting-ships-rcna346046 11: “Lawsuit Aims to Protect Whales in California from Deadly Ship Strikes”, Written by David Derrick. Published on October 23, 2025 by the Center for Biological Diversity https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/lawsuit-aims-to-protect-whales-in-california-from-deadly-ship-strikes-2025-10-23/ 12: “Pilot Project in San Francisco Bay Aims to Help Ships Avoid Gray Whales”, Written by David Brown. Published on June 4, 2026 by Mongabay News https://news.mongabay.com/short-article/2026/06/pilot-project-in-san-francisco-bay-aims-to-help-ships-avoid-gray-whales/ 13: “Partnerships for Common Goals: Acoustic Buoy to Study Marine Mammals in the California Current”, Written by Shannon Rankin. Published on October 3, 2019 by NOAA https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/expedition-feature/19express-logs-oct3/ 14: “New Tool Alerts Ships When Whales are Near. But Will They Slow Down?”, Written by Claudia Geib. Published on September 23, 2020 by Mongabay News https://news.mongabay.com/2020/09/new-tool-alerts-ships-when-whales-are-near-but-will-they-slow-down/ 15: “One Simple Way Ships Can Protect Endangered Whales”, Written by Sharon Livermore. Published on July 3, 2024 by the International Fund for Animal Welfare https://www.ifaw.org/journal/protection-whales-climate-change-ship-speed-reduction 16: “Gentle and Strong – The Pacific Gray Whale”, Written by Samantha Wynns. Published on February 28, 2019 by the National Park Service https://www.nps.gov/cabr/blogs/gentle-and-strong-the-pacific-gray-whale.htm 17: “AI-Powered Whale-Spotting Tech May Help Save San Francisco Bay’s Gray Whales”, Written by Carolyn Gramling. Published on May 19, 2026 by Science News https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ai-tech-save-gray-whales Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J's Kitchen Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of Dr. Mark D. Norman sketching Squid on the coast. Credit to pbs.org. This article is part of our Marine Hall of Distinction collection. In this special collection, we discuss the marine biologists who have contributed most to marine biology & oceanography. We do this to commemorate these marine biologists & show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. Today's marine scientist is Dr. Mark Douglas Norman. Dr. Mark D. Norman is an Australian Marine Biologist, Teuthologist, & Penguin Researcher. He is well known for the numerous octopus species he has discovered, including the incredible Mimic Octopus (Thaumoctopus mimicus). In today’s article, we will delve into his formative years, education, personal life, career, achievements, accomplishments, & awards. With that being said, let’s plunge into the brilliant life & career of Dr. Mark D. Norman! His Education & Formative Years Mark Douglas Norman was born in Australia at an unknown date during the 1960s. As a child, he was fascinated with the natural world, particularly bugs & insects. In grade 3, during a show-and-tell in his class, he brought part of a pig’s head, showcasing his early love for all things nature. As a teenager, he became more interested in the sea, taking up snorkelling & scuba diving. He attended the University of Melbourne for his Bachelor’s Degree (Hons), in Behavioural Ecology, graduating in 1986. In between his degrees, he worked as a Field Biologist & Ecotour Guide across Australia & Papua New Guinea. Upon finishing, he pursued a PhD in Zoology, Ecology, Fisheries & Evolution, completing it in only 2 years in 1992. During his doctoral studies, his interest in the fascinating world of cephalopods was sparked, as he focused on octopuses of the Great Barrier Reef. This interest would steer him on the path to become one of the world’s foremost teuthologists. One of his favourite cephalopods is the Pajama Squid. An adorable photograph of a Pajama Squid, also known as a Striped Dumpling Squid. Credit to IFL Science. His Personal Life & Career Graduation took him across the Pacific to the United States to complete a 1-year stint as a Postdoctoral Fellow through the Harkness Fellowship USA. Through this program, he travelled across the United States, completing biological research with multiple prestigious institutions such as the Smithsonian Institute, & the California Academy of Sciences. Upon finishing, he returned to Australia to begin working with the University of Melbourne & Museums Victoria as a Queen Elizabeth II (QEII) Postdoctoral Research Fellow where he focused on marine ecological & evolutionary studies. In 2001, after reports from underwater photographers Roger Steene & Rudie Kuiter of a strange octopus off the coast of Indonesia that could mimic other organisms, he led a research diving expedition to discover this mysterious creature of the deep. This creature is modernly known as Thaumoctopus mimicis, colloquially called the Mimic Octopus. A compilation of photographs of the Mimic Octopus imitating various sea creatures, such as the Lionfish. Credit to National Geographic. Soon after, in 2006, he would co-discover the extraordinary Wunderpus (Wunderpus photogenicus), a close relative of the Mimic Octopus. A brilliant photograph of the Wunderpus in the Lembeh Strait. Credit to Lembeh Resort. Dr. Norman is perhaps best known for his career with Parks Victoria & Museums Victoria. He began as a Senior Curator with Museums Victoria in 2004, before becoming the Head of Science. During his time there, he made his first research expedition to Australia after a fateful lunch with a few Antarctic Scientists. After being given only six days of warning, he voyaged to Antarctica for what was supposed to be a 2-month research expedition. This 2-month research expedition quickly turned into a 4-month expedition due to their ship being stuck in an ice patch for 47 days while searching for Crabeater Seals (Lobodon carcinphagus). While stuck in the ice, he began taking an interest in penguins after seeing them walking along the ice. As of 2012, he has encountered approximately 12 out of 17 penguin species. In 2016, he became Chief Conservation Scientist with Parks Victoria, overseeing 4.1 million hectares of protected land, & 3,250 individual protected reserves. His Achievements, Accomplishments, & Awards 1. In 2000, he published A Guide to Squid, Cuttlefish and Octopuses of Australasia, a book dedicated to cephalopods of Australasia. 2. In 2000, he published Cephalopods: A World Guide, a book dedicated to cephalopods of the world, a now highly collectible 320-page book discussing cephalopods of every shape, size, & manner. 3. In 2006, he published The Penguin Book: Birds in Suits, a 30-page book all about penguins. 4. He has discovered or co-discovered at least 150 new species of cephalopods. 5. He has won numerous awards for his work, including the Ministerial Award for Contribution to the establishment of the Marine National Parks System, the Whitley Award for Children’s Natural History Literature, the Eve Pownall Award for Information Books, the Environmental Award for Children’s Literature, the David Ashton Biodiversity Science Award, & Public Service Award. Directories / Credits Citation 1: "Interview: Mark D. Norman", Written by Unknown & Published on June 3rd, 2008. Published by PBS.org. https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/encountering-sea-monsters-interview-dr-mark-norman/560/ Citation 2: "Marine biologist Mark Norman talks cephalopods and penguins", Written by Richard Fidler & Published on June 12th, 2012. Published by ABC. https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/conversations/marine-biologist-mark-norman-talks-cephalopods-and-penguins/7757150 Citation 3: "Distinguished Scientist Appointed to Parks Victoria", Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Victoria State Government of Australia. https://www.premier.vic.gov.au/distinguished-scientist-appointed-parks-victoria Citation 4: "Have Tentacles, Will Mimic", Written by Jay Withgott, & Published on August 29th, 2001. Credit to Science.org. https://www.science.org/content/article/have-tentacles-will-mimic Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Introduction A story about forests may seem unrelated to marine biology, but there is one unique tree that actually plays a critical role in supporting marine life. Mangrove trees are tropical plants that grow in wet soil frequently submerged in saltwater by the tides. Their “prop roots” branch down into the water providing habitat and nursery grounds for many marine organisms. Mangroves protect shorelines by absorbing waves and preventing erosion. They are also efficient carbon sinks, yet despite all these benefits to both ocean life and people, they face degradation from numerous threats. In this article we will dive into what those threats are and what’s being done to restore this vital marine ecosystem. The Sundarbans in India are the largest mangrove forest in the world. Photo credit: Dhritiman Mukherjee / Mangrove Action Project The Disaster: Mangrove Loss Half the world’s mangrove provinces are considered threatened and between 2001 and 2012 the world lost 35-97 square miles of mangrove forest every year. The greatest threats that mangrove wetlands face are from farming/aquaculture, natural disasters, climate change, coastal development, and invasive species. Shrimp farming accounts for 35% of mangrove loss. In the 1980s and 90s, global demand for shrimp dramatically increased and mangrove forests were cleared to make room for shrimp pools in Southeast Asia and Latin America. Since then, through intensified industrialization, shrimp farming has become a 10 billion dollar industry. The majority of the shrimp produced is exported to the United States, Japan, and Europe. Meeting this demand not only directly contributes to mangrove deforestation as trees are cut down and cleared away, but the farms also use chemicals that wind up polluting the surrounding environment. Mangrove ecosystems nearby shrimp farms are exposed to pesticides and antibiotics. Additionally, shrimp farms can affect the hydrology of the area, interfering with tidal regimes and saltwater balances. Natural disasters are another major threat to mangrove ecosystems. Hurricanes and tsunamis both damage mangroves by uprooting trees with strong winds and forceful waves. In some instances, storms can wipe out an entire forest. As climate change progresses, we are expected to see more frequent and intense storms. Mangroves are phenomenal storm barriers, but as they shield the coast from potential storm damage, the impact they absorb can destroy them too. Damaged red mangroves after hurricane Irma hit the everglades. Photo Credit: Rookery Bay / Coastal Breeze News Beyond increasing storm intensity, climate change further threatens mangroves by contributing to sea level rise. As sea level rises and beaches shrink, mangrove forests will be flooded. While previous changes to sea level have led mangrove forests to shift further inland, today’s coastal development blocks such migration. Furthermore, mangroves rely on mud buildup to shift inland and today’s buildup rate is not fast enough to compensate for the rate of sea level rise. In the Sundurabans (the world’s largest mangrove forest located in India), 71% of the mangrove forested coastline retreats 200 meters every year. Coastal development not only blocks mangrove forest migration, but it also contributes to mangrove deforestation and releases the carbon stored by mangrove forest sediment. Mangroves are highly efficient carbon sinks storing carbon in their biomass and in the soil beneath them. During construction when sediment is disturbed, the carbon stored in it is re-released back to the atmosphere. Deforestation and development not only contribute to emissions but they also limit carbon sequestration capacity. Finally, invasive species also threaten mangrove forests. Invasive species are non-native species that when introduced to the environment threaten the endemic species of the area. For mangroves, there have been multiple cases of invasive species threats. In China, a marsh grass originally introduced in 1979 to combat erosion eventually spread to choke out mangroves in the area. In Texas, an antelope called nilgai introduced in the 1930s as hunting game began eating mangrove leaves. All of these various threats have led to significant loss of mangrove forests around the world, and when mangroves disappear, the loss goes far beyond the trees themselves to hurt animals, people, and the planet. Impacts There are three main benefits that mangroves provide: (1) they are a habitat and nursery for marine organisms, (2) they protect coastlines, and (3) they are carbon sinks. With the loss of mangroves comes the loss of all these major benefits. Mangroves in South Water Caye Marine Reserve, Belize. Photo Credit: Brian J. Skerry / National Geographic Collection Mangroves uphold an incredibly productive and diverse ecosystem of both aquatic and land species. In the branches of the tree there are birds, monkeys, and insects. In the root systems beneath the water there are fish, amphibians, and invertebrates. Crabs, shrimp, and fish use the mangrove root systems for protection in their vulnerable juvenile years before migrating to the open sea. Of commercial fish species, 30-80% of them rely on mangroves either as a nursery or habitat. A loss of one square mile of mangrove forest causes a loss of about 275,000 pounds of fish per year. By absorbing waves and blocking wind, mangroves protect coastlines from both storms and erosion. In fact, mangroves provide 855 billion dollars worth of flooding protection worldwide. When mangrove forests disappear, they leave coastal communities vulnerable which is especially dangerous as climate change brings stronger storms. Lastly, mangroves are an example of blue carbon – that is, carbon captured by ocean and coastal ecosystems (other examples include seagrasses and salt marshes). Mangrove soils absorb over 6 billion tons of carbon globally. At the same time, mangrove destruction has released 122 million tons between the year 2000 and 2015. Recovery Conservation and restoration efforts are ongoing, however, doing so is not as straightforward as just planting trees. Many restoration projects fail and replanted mangrove trees do not survive. Collaboration with local communities and implementation of local ecological knowledge is necessary for restoration success. Best practices require working within the natural landscape and utilizing historic wisdom to bring the ecosystem back to its former state. Sustainable practices in and around mangrove ecosystems are also important. In some places, people are implementing sustainable fishing and aquaculture, switching away from logging practices, and introducing alternative livelihood options such as mangrove beekeeping. Local involvement is vital to ensuring the long-term preservation of mangrove forests. The Global Mangrove Alliance (GMA) is a worldwide collaboration (coordinated by Conservation International, The Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, Wetlands International, and The International Union for Conservation of Nature) that aims to protect and restore mangrove ecosystems. With over 100 members in more than 40 countries, GMA has already restored 65,000ha of mangroves. Conclusion Yearly mangrove loss rates have begun to slow down, thanks to continued protection and restoration efforts, but the threats mangroves face have far from disappeared. On this year’s World Mangrove Day, July 26th, it’s important to remember the vital role of this fascinating coastal tree that faces many disasters at sea. Citations / Directories Citation No. 1: “What is a Mangrove?”, Written by Unknown, Published on December 13th, 2024. Published by Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieval Date: June 27th, 2026 https://floridadep.gov/water/submerged-lands-environmental-resources-coordination/content/what-mangrove#:~:text=Mangroves%20are%20tropical%20plants%20that,mangroves%20found%20throughout%20the%20world. Citation No. 2: “Mangroves”, Written by The Ocean Portal Team, Published on Unknown Date. Published by Smithsonian Museum of Natural History. Retrieval Date: June 27th, 2026 https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/plants-algae/mangroves Citation No. 3: “Threats to Mangroves”, Written by Unknown, Published on Unknown Date. Published by The Mangrove Action Project. Retrieval Date: June 28th, 2026 https://mangroveactionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Threats-to-Mangroves.pdf Citation No. 4: “State of the World’s Mangroves Executive Summary”, Written by Unknown, Published in 2024. Published by the Global Mangrove Alliance. Retrieval Date: June 28th, 2026 https://tnc.app.box.com/s/hw1cpvdwikibvpw4swh7lzata9nckva4 (6/28) Citation No. 5: “Farmed Shrimp”, Written by Unknown, Published on Unknown Date. Published by World Wildlife Fund. Retrieval Date: June 28th, 2026 https://www.worldwildlife.org/our-work/oceans/sustainable-seafood/farmed-seafood/farmed-shrimp/ Citation No. 6: “Tigers under threat from disappearing mangrove forest”, Written by John Vidal, Published on January 29th, 2013. Published by The Guardian. Retrieval Date: June 28th, 2026 https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/jan/29/sunderbans-disappearing-mangrove-india-bangladesh Citation No. 7: “Threats to Mangroves”, Written by Unknown, Published on Unknown Date. Published by Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide. Retrieval Date: June 28th, 2026 https://elaw.org/mangroves-threats Citation No. 8: “What is Blue Carbon?”, Written by Unknown, Published on June 16th, 2024. Published by NOAA. Retrieval Date: June 28th, 2026 https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/bluecarbon.html Citation No. 9: “Carbon Storage and Sequestration”, Written by Unknown, Published on Unknown Date. Published by Mapping Ocean Wealth. Retrieval Date: June 28th, 2026 https://oceanwealth.org/ecosystem-services/carbon/ Citation No. 10: "Mangroves save $855 billion in flood protection globally, new study shows”, Written by Mike Peña, Published on December 5th, 2024. Published by UNDRR. Retrieval Date: June 29th, 2026 https://www.preventionweb.net/news/mangroves-save-855-billion-flood-protection-globally-new-study-shows Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of a coastal settlement on the coastline of Little Diomede Island. Credit to Jensen Creative Hall. In today’s article, we are going to discuss the oceans surrounding Little Diomede Island, Alaska. Little Diomede Island, colloquially known as Yesterday Island, is a small island far off the coast of Alaska. It is a part of the Diomede Archipelago. Despite being a mere 2.3 miles from Big Diomede, the islands are 23 hours apart in time. For this reason, Big Diomede is known as Tomorrow Island, while Little Diomede is known as Yesterday Island. Little Diomede is incredibly isolated, as it is 16 miles from mainland Alaska, & doesn’t have any roads leading to it. Usually, the only way to get to the island is by helicopter, & in the summer, by boat. Despite the harsh conditions, the island still currently has a population of 87. The majority of these people are indigenous Inupiat people. Even though the temperatures can reach as low as -20° Fahrenheit, marine life has still found a way to survive in this environment. Animals such as Cetaceans, Crabs, Seals, & Large Fish have all adapted to this frigid & hostile climate, & thrive amongst the ice. Many of these marine animals have evolved to have some form of insulation, which allows them to live in such cold environments without freezing to death. For example, Cetaceans are known for their thick layers of blubber, which enable them to endure such intense temperatures. In this article, we are going to delve into the Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Depth of the Oceans Surrounding Little Diomede, the Marine Environments of Little Diomede, the Marine Flora & Fauna of Little Diomede Island, & finally How Climate Change is Affecting Little Diomede Island. With that being said, let us delve into the arctic waters of Little Diomede Island. The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Depth of The Oceans Surrounding Little Diomede Island The salinity of the water around Little Diomede Island is between 31 & 33 parts per thousand or practical salinity units. Salinity is measured in 1,000-gram increments of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt, with the amount of pure salt being referred to as parts per thousand or practical salinity units. The tidal charts around Little Diomede Island unfortunately are not available through many resources. One of the few sites that offers the tidal charts for the isles, is https://tideking.com. The tide around Little Diomede Island generally doesn’t go over 4.5 feet (1.3716 meters), or below -0.5 feet (-0.01524 meters). Similarly, there are almost no charts available of the oceanic temperatures for Little Diomede. Little Diomede is surrounded by relatively shallow water, ranging from 3 (0.9144 meters), to 173 feet (52.7304 meters) deep. There are no sea mounts in the nearby area, with the seafloor being composed primarily of rock & sand. A photograph of Diomede, the only settlement on Little Diomede. Credit to coastview.org. The Marine Ecosystems of Little Diomede Island Ecosystem Type No. 1: Frigid Coastal Waters The waters near Little Diomede Island are quite deep, & are home to a variety of animals. Many whales pass the island on their migrational routes. Very few animals inhabit the area year-round, with the few exceptions mainly being invertebrates such as crabs. Ecosystem Type No. 2: Rocky Coastlines Little Diomede has a coastline adorned with rocks. Along these rocks, colonies of seals or walruses can be seen relaxing. Apart from that, there is very little else that inhabits the direct coastline of Little Diomede Island. The Marine Flora of Little Diomede Island Unfortunately, due to the cold temperatures, harsh winds, & harsh currents, very little vegetation grows on the island or in the ocean around the island. The Marine Fauna of Little Diomede Island As said before, though Little Diomede Island has a very harsh environment, marine animals still thrive. Seal colonies can be seen along the shoreline in the summer months. There are 2 primary species of seals that inhabit the island, those being Ringed Seals (Pusa hispida), & Bearded Seals (Erignathus barbatus). A photograph of a Ringed Seal (Pusa hispada), lying on an ice floe. Credit to Earth Rangers. Walruses, dolphins, & whales are also fairly common, with species such as the Bowhead Whale, (Balaena mysticetus), congregating near the island during the late winter, spring, & early summer. Crabs, such as the Hanasaki Crab (Paralithodes brevipes), are also very common around the island, & are often hunted for their meat. A photograph of the head chef at the Hanasaki Crab specialty restaurant in Hokkaido, Japan, holding a massive Hanasaki Crab. Credit to Katsukanino-Hanasaki. How Climate Change Is Affecting Little Diomede Island Unfortunately, Little Diomede Island is at high risk for climate change. The island highly relies on ice for airstrips to land planes on, however, global warming is gradually causing permafrost to melt & ice to disappear. Planes are no longer able to land on Little Diomede Island, & islanders now have to rely on Helicopters to transport food & supplies once a week from Nome, if the weather allows. With ice melting, the ground is shifting underneath buildings as well, causing buildings to collapse off of their wooden stilts. One of the best examples of this occurred in 2023 when the local tribal office collapsed into the only school. Additionally, climate change is actively changing the migration routes for important animals such as walruses & seals, which many natives rely on for their meat. Overall, global warming & rising sea temperatures are causing massive issues for these islanders. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “One of the Biggest Arctic Migrations You’ve Never Heard Of”, Written by Unknown, & Published On May 12th, 2014. Published by the Ocean Conservancy. Retrieval Date: October 21st, 2024. https://oceanconservancy.org/blog/2014/05/12/one-of-natures-wonders-spring-migration-in-the-arctic/ Citation No. 2: “Sealand & Walrus Harvest & Habitat Waters For Nine Bering Strait Region Communities”, Written by the Kawerak, & Published in 2013. Published by the Kawerak. Retrieval Date: October 21st, 2024. https://eskimowalruscommission.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Seal-and-Walrus-Harvest-and-Habitat-Areas.pdf Citation No. 3: “Climate Change Brings Collapsing Stilts and Hungry Bears to Little Diomede Island” Written by Cecily Hillaery, Published on December 23rd, 2023. Retrieval Date: October 21st, 2024. https://www.voanews.com/amp/climate-change-brings-collapsing-stilts-and-hungry-bears-to-little-diomede-island-/7405709.html Citation No. 4: “Climate Change Batters This Arctic Community - Can The Community Cope”, Written by Tik Root, & Published on November 30th, 2018. Retrieval Date: October 21st, 2024. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/little-diomede-alaska-faces-rapid-climate-change-threatens-native-inupiat-community Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Olivenbaum Music The Open Book, Topanga Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A distinguished photograph of Dr. Jeb Byers in his office at the University of Georgia Odum School of Ecology. Credit to Chamberlain Smith. Recently, our head writer was fortunate to sit down for an interview with invasive species zoologist, marine parasitologist, & marine invertebrate zoologist Dr. Jeb Byers. Dr. Jeb Byers is an invasive species ecologist, marine parasitologist, marine invertebrate zoologist, author, & conservationist known for his work with the University of Georgia. In today’s interview, we sit down with Dr. Jeb Byers to discuss his career, background, the ongoing screw-worm infestation in the United States, parasites, his advice to early-career ocean professionals, & how, sometimes, when the world hands you invasive species, the only thing you can do is make lemonade. Before delving into today’s comprehensive 19-question interview, please note everything said has been edited for clarity, & that the opinions of our interviewee do not necessarily reflect the opinions & values of our organization. With that being said, let us delve into the contents of the interview! Contents of the Interview Questions About His Passion: 1. What sparked your passion for the ocean, & marine science? I grew up in the mountains of North Carolina. I spent a lot of time outdoors hiking in the mountains. I have always had a general love of nature, being outside, & being active. When I got to my formal undergraduate education at Duke University, I was a biology major. In my junior year, I had the opportunity to study at Duke Marine Lab down on the coast of North Carolina. That’s when I harnessed my biological interest into the marine realm, & I got my feet wet both literally & figuratively doing my first independent research study learning all about critters. That’s when it got traction, & took on a marine direction. 2. Was there any major person, place, book, or media franchise that assisted in the sparking of your passions for these subjects? One of my inspirations when I got to Duke Marine Lab was one of my professors, Dr. William Kirby Smith. He taught invertebrate zoology. That class was very instrumental in igniting my curiosity & passion. We had this habit of going out & collecting organisms from the field that we would later look at. In the meantime, before we got to them, we would keep them in aquaria with our lab partner. Every two people had their own aquarium inside the lab, & I remember initially thinking “That’s going to be a disaster!”, but in hindsight that was exactly the point. He said “If you ever get bored with me talking, just watch the critters in the tank. You can learn a lot from their behaviour & physiology.” That class was really captivating, & I poured myself into that class, & got a ton out of it. It was fun, he was a very inspirational teacher. 3. What is your favourite terrestrial, or marine animal personally, & what is your favourite marine or terrestrial animal that you have worked on? Octopuses are definitely my favourite. There’s so much I could say. I have a whole lecture that I give on octopuses, I think they are a very special organism both evolutionarily & on the basis of what it can do. It has an intelligence that’s sort of otherworldly, because it evolved on a completely different branch of life from humans. All of its capabilities, like its intelligence, & its eyes, completely independently evolved. They are just fascinating organisms. I was fortunate enough to work on a project that involved octopuses in Australia, because they are a major clam predator. We were doing a project on clams, & the octopus in the area were hunting clams quite effectively to use the shells to fortify their dens. That made them easy to spot. We would dive, & we’d swim around so we could map out all the octopus dens in our study area to quantify them. We did a lot of video analysis of them hunting for clams under the surface. That was fun, it sort of combined my personal interest in octopus into an academic study that we were doing. A delightful photograph of a Veined Octopus (Amphioctopus marginatus), hiding inside of a pair of old shells. This photograph was taken in Northern Sulawesi, Indonesia. Credit to Sam Sloss. https://twig.technology/ Questions About His Career: 4. What university did you attend for your P.h.D, & was there any specific reason you chose that university? After undergrad, I took a couple years off to pursue other interests. I taught high school in Ecuador for a year, then I came back & I worked at the University of North Carolina Marine Laboratory for a year. It was during that year I really decided that was what I wanted to do. I learned a ton from working with the other graduate students & professors there. They were helpful, because at the time I was applying for grad school, they had a lot of recommendations on people & places to look into. I knew that I wanted to study on the US West Coast because I’d already studied a lot on the East Coast, & I wanted geographic diversity. They recommended some good people & places, & I ended up at the University of California, Santa Barbara, which is where I did my PhD. I did most of my fieldwork in Northern California, specifically Marin County, which is North of San Francisco Bay. 5. What was the first research project that you led, & what was the first research project that you participated in? During my undergraduate studies, in my fall junior semester at Duke University, I completed an independent study project, which was one of the courses we could take for credit. Dr. William Kirby Smith, who I mentioned before, was my advisor on that project. That was another reason he was really seminal in my development. We came up with a project idea where I was going to compare heavy metal contamination between filter-feeder oysters and deposit-feeder mud snails. I was going to compare it between open water & marina environments. It was a pretty straightforward design, but it was a good bite-sized project for an undergraduate. I pretty much did that independently once I learned the proper methodology to use. After I graduated, I ended up getting that paper published in a peer-reviewed journal (Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Society) which was very important at the time, especially because I was considering grad school. That was the way I sort of cut my teeth in marine ecology research. 6. What work have you done in the field of marine parasitology & in relation to marine diseases? I first got interested in marine parasites during my PhD. During my PhD, I was working on species invasions, & there was an invasive mud snail from Japan that had entered the United States. I was attempting to address whether it was outcompeting a native mud snail. I remember getting a question quite often during the early stages of my PhD preparation about how parasites are affecting the ecosystem at large, because parasites are pretty synonymous with mud snails. They are heavily loaded. I looked inside them, & there were a lot, & it sort of changed my perspective on the world after seeing that, because you can’t unsee that whole world inside organisms. It became a fascinating angle for a lot of my projects after that, looking at the ecology of parasites. Not so much how they affected the host, & what medicine can be used to treat parasitic infections, that is what traditional parasitology is interested in, but how they affect populations, & how parasites themselves are influenced by environmental factors. A lot of work has taken place since my PhD, & we’ve done a lot of work looking at parasites from biogeographic perspectives, like how they’ve spread over large spatial scales, & what factors control their distribution. I just finished co-editing a book called The Ecology & Evolution of Marine Parasites & Disease (2026), which has a whole bunch of perspectives, including evolutionary patterns that parasites demonstrate, large spatial & temporal scale patterns, environmental drivers of their abundance, & that sort of thing. It’s been a long-term research focus for myself & my students. 7. Do you mind elaborating on your work related to invasive species, & creating conservation strategies tailored around reducing them? When I started grad school, I was interested in working on invasive species. It was a rising topic at the time. The late 1980s is when the zebra mussel first showed up in the United States, that was sort of the poster child for invasion biology. I was entering grad school in the mid-nineties, so the idea that this should be looked at from a formal perspective rather than just ad hoc was just taking form. There was a big desire to figure out if we could predict which species were going to be problematic, & what we could do when we found out they were. A lot of my PhD work was quantifying species invasion, & trying to figure out mechanistically what’s going on. The field has become much more sophisticated over the last few decades. It’s much more quantitative now. Policy-wise we’ve gotten more sophisticated too, because now we’re not letting species in willy-nilly anymore. We’re putting the onus on people to show that a species is safe before bringing it in. There are inspections from government agencies like APHIS (Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service), especially in our ports that look at possibly condemning or turning back shipments that have been contaminated with invasive species. Unfortunately, we are still behind the curve because species are being introduced at exponentially high rates. They’re with us. Figuring out how these species integrate into native food webs & systems is a way we can create lemonade out of the situation, because it’s a way to study ecological & evolutionary questions with novel species interactions. Species that don’t share any evolutionary history are coming together, & seeing how they interact can be informative. 8. One of the species which is making a name for itself in the US as of now is the New World Screwworm Fly (Cochliomyia hominivorax). What is your opinion on this rapidly developing situation, & do you have any colleagues working on it? I don’t have any colleagues directly working on it. That’s an interesting case study, because the US had been very instrumental in controlling screwworm. It started in South America, & was spreading into Central America, towards the southern border of the United States. This was several decades ago, & the US figured out ways to control it. We were able to push it back to the South American Border, so it was absent from the Central American isthmus. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. They were spending tiny amounts of money, it was keeping screwworm at bay. It’s a very, very painful infection which infects livestock, & can actually be lethal in high doses. The program was dismantled by the US, I believe it happened fairly recently as a part of DOGE government cutback efforts. Even though this program only cost pennies on the dollar, we’re paying the price because screwworm has now resurged all through Central America, & into the United States. It’s so short-sighted, because it was super easy to control, & very, very cheap. Now the cat’s out of the bag again, & we’ve got to go back to square one to figure out how to control it. It’s going to cost a ton of money, it’s a real shame. It’s an example of things we’ve seen from time to time of just how important it is to control these invasions as early as possible. 9. What research have you done in relation to studying the effects of global climate change on marine ecosystems? I’ve tackled that from a few angles. I’ve done some reviews on how temperature might affect parasites & diseases in marine ecosystems. We’ve also done some empirical work on temperature drivers in shrimp disease. We’ve been looking at things on a global biogeographic scale, such as how temperature might affect range boundaries. In the ocean, temperatures might not be the most important factor changing with climate. The currents that might be changing in conjunction with all the change going on may be a bigger issue. A lot of times in terrestrial ecosystems, organisms are able to track temperature changes. For example, if it’s getting hotter, they’ll move farther north, or farther up in elevation. In the ocean, organisms don’t necessarily have the luxury of being able to track that, because they get bounded by, for example, biogeographic breaks which hinder their movement. In many ways, they have to go where the currents take them. A lot of times, the currents are not conducive to taking them to the place that is better temperature-wise. That’s an important facet to keep in mind when you’re thinking about how marine organisms respond to global change, in that temperature may not always be the biggest driver as it often is in terrestrial systems. 10. What work have you done in estuarine ecology? A huge part of my work is in estuaries. Those habitats are near shore, so they’re very accessible. They’re on the front line of any human impacts, because they are interfacing between humans & the shoreline. They’re really fun! Here on the east coast, they are extensive. The marshes here in Georgia will go on for miles & miles. You could get lost in one of them, it’s a giant habitat. It’s fascinating. I know the ecology of it well, so it’s a fun system to keep exploring. The farther offshore you go in marine ecology & marine biology, the more expensive it is. You need ship time or boat time, but, you can always put on a pair of boots & walk out into the estuary anytime you like. It’s very accessible, so it tends to be easier to study. All the organisms I work with are estuarine, everything since the snails I did my PhD on. We’ve been working a lot with oysters, shrimp, & crabs. Some of these species do occasionally live offshore, at least for part of their lifecycle. A lot of people think that just because an organism spends most of its life in one area, that conserving marshlands, mangroves, or estuaries (ecological nurseries) isn’t important, but that’s not true. That’s not true at all. A photograph of a saltwater marsh along the coast of Sapelo Island, Georgia, USA. The primary species of seaweed comprising this marsh is Spartina alterniflora. American Oysters may be seen as well. Credit to Brian Silliman. 11. What work have you done in marine invertebrate zoology? Almost all of the organisms I work with are invertebrates. Occasionally, we’ll do a project which dips into the fish world, but lots of shellfish, oysters, mussels, clams, snails, shrimp & crab. Crustaceans & molluscs are certainly the biggest group that I’ve worked with. Sometimes fish are involved, sometimes seaweeds are involved, but invertebrates are where my passion is. In the Southeastern US, all the important commercial fisheries are invertebrates. In Georgia, we have no commercial fin fishery. I think that often people are surprised because when you hear the word fishery, people assume you’re talking about fin fish. Shrimp, crab, & oyster are the top three (commercially relevant) species here, all inverts. Part of this is because of our turbid water, which is not conducive to having large enough fish populations to sustain fisheries, so invertebrates have a big economic heft. Think of the American Lobster (Homarus americanus) industry for example. A photograph of Dr. Jeb Byers inspecting a crab at research site on Skidaway Island, Georgia. Credit to Peter Frey. 12. A large part of your career has been spent researching anthropogenic impacts on the ocean, primarily through pollution. What research have you done in this regard, & what conclusions have you come to? Invasive species themselves are often anthropogenically spread, or they’re aided by humans in their transport around the world. That’s why they’ve become such a problem as the rate of introduction has gone up so high. We’ve also done a bit of work with microplastics, & their accumulation in oysters. We’ve done projects on what we call shoreline armouring, which is when people put up structures to protect their property from erosion or beachfront energy, & looked at what those effects are in different marine & estuarine environments. That’s a good overview of the ways we looked at anthropogenic problems. 13. Invasive species are often transported as a result of human shipping & commerce. As such, you think of them as a form of pollution? I do find it useful to sometimes refer to them as biological pollution when talking to people. When ships are traveling the ocean, they often use ballast water to help them stabilize. Oftentimes that ballast water could be sucked up from a port in the originating city. For example, say you have a ship in Vietnam & it takes in ballast water, then transits the Pacific to get to San Francisco Bay. If it decides it doesn’t need the ballast water anymore, it dumps it out in the bay. That went on for decades, all around the world. People eventually started realizing that the water you are dumping in the bay is not sterile. It has all kinds of living organisms in it such as larvae, & even small fish. A lot of organisms are now taking root in San Francisco Bay. In fact, San Francisco Bay now has more than 300 non-native species, in part due to that ballast water transfer over decades. Most of the biomass in San Francisco Bay is not native, somewhere between 90 & 95% of the bay is non-native. Getting people to realize that the water needs to be treated like you might treat sewage water has now changed. We now have new policies on how ballast water can be dealt with, & there are still people working on new ways to do it more effectively. Yeah, I think that framing invaders as biological pollution can be very useful. Now of course, there are non-native species that we eat, use in agriculture, & have as pets, so you can’t always frame them that way, but I do think it can be useful when you talk about the problem. 14. What are ecosystem engineers, & how would you describe them to those who aren’t familiar? We’ve done a lot in the area of ecosystem engineers, which are sometimes also referred to as foundation species. There’s a recognition that certain species are very structurally important in the habitats they live in, & you can’t think of the habitat as existing without them. In fact, sometimes we even use the species when we’re talking about these ecosystems, such as coral reef communities, oyster reef communities, or hemlock forests. You’re invoking in that case the name of an ecosystem engineer, because that species is a linchpin for the entire system. In the case of coral, coral are making calcium carbonate skeletons, which is an important habitat for other species. It changes the flow of the environment. It changes erosion rates. It’s a habitat. It’s engineering the environment, & changing the physical environment for a lot of organisms. That broad term captures the effect. The examples we gave were with an organism itself creating the structure, like coral, oysters, or trees, but you could also have examples where organisms build structures outside of their bodies, like termite mounds or beaver dams. That’s also another form of engineering, which in this case, persists outside the engineer itself, & can live in the environment for a long time, even after the engineer is gone. Ecologists have known this effect has existed for a long time, but we haven’t formalized the study of it until the last several decades, realizing that the dam a beaver creates, its engineering, is probably more important than its biological effects of what it eats & how it competes. That dam has a huge influence on biogeochemistry & all other organism interactions affecting a very large spatial scale. Recognizing that engineering might be the most important thing a species is doing has been a fun aspect for me to consider in some of the research I’m doing. 15. What are you currently working on at the University of Georgia? I have several graduate students, & they’re always actively in the field pursuing different topics. I have one who’s working on ecosystem engineering, in particular ecosystem engineers in mangrove forests. They’re a very important engineer because they are a woody tree. It’s one of the only trees that can live in saltwater, & performs a lot of engineering through erosion control, slowing waves, & providing habitat. It is spreading northward with climate change. It’s been limited by freezing temperatures in the winter, & those have been becoming more moderate. It’s spreading northward & is interacting & coming in contact with a salt marsh grass called Spartina, which is another ecosystem engineer. In the marshes of Georgia, for example, that’s the dominant plant species that lives in lower marsh areas, because it can tolerate salt very well. She’s looking at what happens when the two interact, in the transition phase, & in the long run. I have another student working on parasite ecology, specifically how contaminants affect parasite communities. Another student is working on looking at biogeographic boundaries & how they’re influenced by currents. So yes, lots of activity going on! We finished up some work recently looking at black gill disease in shrimp, we were particularly interested in knowing if it was affecting the shrimp population. We’ve also been working a lot with oysters & on oyster disease, as well as what factors are affecting the broad-scale patterns in oyster disease. 16. What has been your biggest triumph or proudest moment across your career? It’s always a great moment when you have a student who graduates & moves on to the next step of their career. That’s really satisfying. It’s always a little bittersweet when a student leaves the lab, but it’s nice to see them land on their feet, & get a job that they’ve been really excited about, & move on, spread their wings, & start their own independent research careers. I’ve been proud of my involvement in 2 books. I showed you the one on parasites, & there was another on ecosystem engineering. When those edited books came out, that was a pretty proud moment. Finishing big grant projects is always satisfying, when you’ve had some important questions in front of you, & after several years you’ve been able to get some insight on some important academic & sometimes practical questions. The shrimp disease project we worked on was really fulfilling in that regard because they’re a very important commercial species, & we were able to show in this case what we don’t think the black gill disease was having much of an effect on shrimp populations. That was an important finding to understand from a practical sense. A photograph of 3 shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) afflicted by Black Gill Disease, also known as Black Spot Disease. This photograph was taken for a study titled “Identifying diseases affecting farmed Litopenaeus vannamei in different areas of Nellore district in Andhra Pradesh, India.” Credit to Durbha Srinivas. 17. I’m sure that you have faced just as many challenges & setbacks as you have leaps forward, what has been the biggest hurdle or challenge that you have faced across your career, & how did you overcome it? Since I’ve been a professor, I don’t think I’ve had too many giant hurdles. Part of that is that once you get to that stage, you’re able to roll with the punches a little better, & you understand how to get around problems. You also have many projects going forward, so if one of them gets stymied, you’re able to pivot to some of the others. I would say the hardest part is in earlier stages when you’re in your PhD when you have one major focus of research. If you hit a snag, it can kind of derail things & you have to figure out a way around it. Relatedly, I think finding a postdoc can be quite difficult because those positions are very limiting. It’s sort of the stage you do in between your PhD & a faculty job, so finding a postdoc, especially one that you are excited about & want to do, can sometimes be a hurdle. I was thankful in all those cases because I was able to persevere & move through them. Looking back on my career, those kinds of hurdles are there, but during your PhD you’re less experienced in dealing with them, & you’re also more singularly focused. So, a problem sort of means that everything comes to a halt, & you have to work around it. Whereas now I’ve got more irons in the fire, & I can pivot around things better when problems arise. 18. What is your advice for new marine scientists, early career ocean professionals, or young passionate people looking to enter conservation? I think you want to be ambitious, energetic, & driven. Look for opportunities to get involved. Those opportunities may not always be marine, when I’m looking for graduate students, oftentimes what I want to see is commitment. Do they know the scientific method? Do they have research experience? The exact theme of what they’ve been researching is of secondary interest to me. I mostly want to know if they persevere. Do they know how to stick to a problem? Have they worked in a lab for a number of years & gotten some continuity there? To me, the scientific skills are the most important part. The actual area you apply them to, whether it’s a certain species or system, is the icing on the cake. Be open to possibilities, maybe not in the marine realm, as long as they further your interest in a thematic area or in science in general. 19. Do you have any final words about your work, the ocean, invasive species, or climate change? I think a lot of it has been encapsulated in our talk here today. I don't know that I necessarily have any concluding remarks other than for me, it’s been a really, really fun career. I like being a professor a lot, because there’s a lot of variety in the job. I can teach, I can research, I can help on service-oriented things, & even within those areas I can pivot to teach different classes, do different research projects, or work with different colleagues. I have enjoyed the variety. I really enjoy the curiosity & getting to solve problems. One of my favourite times of the week is when we have our lab meetings, get to sit down, think about problems, & hear other perspectives about how to approach a subject matter. It’s really fulfilling to me. If that is appealing to you, it’s a good field to pursue. A photograph of the esteemed Dr. Jeb Byers at the University of Georgia. Credit to UGAToday. Directories / Credits https://jebyers.ecology.uga.edu Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Today’s chart is a primordial 169-year-old map of the South Atlantic Ocean, featuring both the coasts of South America & the coast of West Africa. The chart is fairly large, at 51 inches long by 38 inches wide. It is in beautiful condition for its age, apart from a small hole in one of its compass roses. Its blemishes & soiling are consistent with use at sea. In today’s article, we are going to examine this antique map, discuss it, & analyze it. With that being said, let’s delve into the visually magnificent, cool, & unforgiving waters of the South Atlantic Ocean! The Chart A 169-year-old antique nautical chart produced by James Imray & his son, James Frederick Imray. Credit to raremaps.com. This chart features most of South America, part of West Africa, the South Atlantic Ocean, & the Eastern Pacific Ocean, from the Equator to 65° South latitude. It is packed with information, & includes multiple archipelagos such as the Galapagos, South Shetland, South Orkney, Sandwich, & Falkland Islands. It is beautifully decorated, with intricate calligraphy all over. 10 compass roses are littered across the map, which would have been used by navigators to orient themselves as to what their position was. In the Atlantic, we can see “Reid's Shoal (1842)”, located near Lagoa dos Patos, Brazil, while in the Pacific we can see “Powsland Reef? (1853)”. Coral reefs, rocky reefs, & shoals pose many issues to passing ships, as they may cause hull damage to unsuspecting vessels which strike them. Hull damage can catastrophically alter the structural integrity of the ship, & may cause it to capsize & sink. As such, it is of critical importance to have these properly labelled. Weather conditions are featured prominently in the chart, with the infamous Drake Passage labelled with “Storms and almost constant rain prevail here”. Other areas, such as the South Sandwich Islands, are labelled with “High Land covered with snow”. South of 60° Latitude, reports of field ice from various years can be seen. Field ice is defined as an expanse of sea ice or lake ice on a body of water which is so large, that the other side may not be seen from the masthead of a ship. It is relatively flat, & according to the Manual of Ice, must be more than 6.3 miles (10 kilometers) across. This would have been extraordinarily useful to any sailor traversing icy Antarctic waters, as field ice could severely damage or even sink a vessel. Information about currents near Brazil & Cape Horn can be found on the left side of the map, while information about the Lagullas Current, South African Current, & Southern Connecting Current can be found on the right side. According to the chart, the Lagullas Current is set westward around the Cape of Good Hope, & varies in velocity. The South African Current is a strong broad extension of the Lagullas Current, running northwest. The Southern Connecting Current flows to the east between 30° & 40° South latitude. It is also broad, & quite strong. Illustrations of Tristan de Cunha, West Falkland, Gough Island, False Cape Horn & the Cape Horn can all be seen near the bottom. Each coastline is drawn with attention to detail. An Analysis Of The Chart This chart was manufactured in 1857, by the Scottish pair of hydrographers James Imray & his son, James Frederick Imray. Imray Sr. began his business as a bookseller in 1818. He shared his office space with a nautical chart seller, Robert Blachford, & eventually went into business with his successor, Michael Blachford. He eventually bought Blachford out in 1846, & brought his son in as a partner in 1854. In 1899, the firm was sold to Norie & Wilson. Nowadays, the combined firms trade under the name Imray, Laurie, Norie, & Wilson, keeping the name alive over a century later. The map was created & published in London, as that is where the cartographic office of Imray was located. The chart is titled “General Chart of the South Atlantic or Ethiopic Ocean From The Equator to 65° South Latitude according to the latest Surveys & Observations”. Upon reviewing the concise details printed, publishing house, & era that it was manufactured in, this chart was likely manufactured using lithography. Lithography is a method of printing that arose in the 1820s, & remained the most popular method of printing in both color & grayscale until the early 1960s, when more efficient methods became available. Although it has existed since the mid-1790s, it took a long time to gain popularity in Europe due to technical difficulties. It only began gaining commercial popularity in the early 1820s. It is still used for certain kinds of printing today, such as fine art printing, however, digital printing is far more common. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the image is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho-press. Afterward, an exact copy of what was supposed to be printed is revealed. It is extremely useful for making high-resolution prints in high quantities. A sunlit photograph of Cape Horn, Tierra del Fuego, Chile. This area is prominently featured on today’s chart. Credit to Wikimedia Commons. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Rare Maps, a California rare & antique maps store. To purchase this chart, antique atlases, or other cartographic objects, please visit www.raremaps.com. To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Rare Maps, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Presence News Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A trio of Bowhead Whales approaching a platform of sea ice. Credit to phys.org. This month’s article series is going to discuss the small & obscure isle of Little Diomede Island, located in the Bering Strait. Little Diomede Island, colloquially known as Yesterday Island, is a small island far off the coast of Alaska. It is a part of the Diomede Archipelago. Despite being a mere 2.3 miles from Big Diomede, the islands are 23 hours apart in time. For this reason, Big Diomede is known as Tomorrow Island, while Little Diomede is known as Yesterday Island. Little Diomede is incredibly isolated, as it is only 16 miles from mainland Alaska, & doesn’t have any roads leading to it. Usually, the only way to get to the island is by helicopter, & in the summer, by boat. Despite the harsh conditions, the island still currently has a population of 87. The majority of these people are indigenous Inupiat people. Even though the temperatures can reach as low as -20° Fahrenheit, marine life has still found a way to survive in this environment. Whales, Seals, & Marine Mammals in general have the ability to thrive in these polar regions, due to their large amounts of blubber insulating them from the cold. One of the whale species known to roam around the island is the Bowhead Whale. The Bowhead Whale (Balaena mysticetus), is a species of Whale found throughout the Arctic & Far North regions of the world. In this article, we are going to discuss the discovery & life of the Bowhead Whale, the mating habits, practices, procedures, tactics, techniques, & strategies of the Bowhead Whale, the distribution of the Bowhead Whale, & finally, the scientific detailings of the Bowhead Whale. With that being said, let us delve into this magnificent oceanic beast. The Discovery & Life of the Bowhead Whale The Bowhead Whale was first discovered by commercial whalers doing whaling in the Arctic Sea in 1611, though it wouldn’t be described until about 147 years later. It was officially described as a species in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish Taxonomist, Naturalist, Biologist, & Zoologist. Bowhead whales are able to grow up to 62 feet long, & weigh up to 200,000 pounds. There is sexual dimorphism in Bowhead Whales, meaning that one sex is larger than the other. In this case, female Bowhead Whales are typically larger than male Bowhead Whales. Bowhead whales are estimated to live for 200 years or more, which makes them the longest-living marine mammal, & one of the longest-living creatures on earth. According to current fossil records, this species has existed for approximately 2 million years. While Bowhead Whales are considered to be intelligent animals, there is very little information on the specifics of their intelligence. They seem to have a similar intelligence to Blue Whales in many respects. Individuals rarely interact with humans in the wild, primarily due to their remote environments. When they do interact with humans, they are usually not aggressive or violent. As they are highly migrational, they aren’t territorial, & don’t seem to have well-defined territories. They are quite social animals, living in large groups known as pods. These groups are generally composed of 2 to 6 individuals, & are common in areas with abundant resources. However, these pods have a very loose structure, with individuals joining & leaving quickly. Similar to most other marine mammals, Bowhead whales maintain their buoyancy by keeping a thick layer of blubber that is lighter than the water around them. They typically swim at a slow speed of 2 to 4 miles per hour, however, if afraid or faced with a threat, they can burst into a 13-mile-per-hour underwater sprint. Bowhead whales swim by flexing their powerful tails up & down, which propels their bodies forward. They are fairly agile, being able to traverse the water column with grace. Unlike humans, whales don’t shut off their brains & sleep in one 8-hour long period. If they were to do this, they wouldn’t be able to react as quickly to predators or threats. Instead, they sleep by turning off only half of their brains, while keeping the majority of their brains active & alert. They are still able to hear & observe threats while resting, such that if a predator approaches, they can make a quick escape. Bowhead whales are Baleen Whales, meaning they feed off of small planktonic organisms & krill. They are not cannibalistic, & cannibalism has never been recorded in this species. As they are so large, a typical bowhead requires 4,000 pounds of krill per day to keep operational. They feed by opening their massive mouths, & having krill simply fall into their mouths. Due to their massive size, almost nothing can prey on a fully grown bowhead whale, except for Orcas. Bowhead whales are dark greyish, apart from their white underside. Their heads are large & bow-shaped, with their mouth being very large. This bow-shaped head enables them to break through pack ice easily. They have 2 small blowholes atop their head, used for blowing water out of their lungs. Their eyes are quite small, & rest on the sides of their heads. As of 2026, Bowhead Whales are ranked as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List, with their population increasing. There are at least 10,000 mature Bowhead Whales. The Mating Habits, Practices, Procedures, Tactics, Techniques, & Strategies Of The Bowhead Whale A photograph of a new-born Bowhead Whale with its mother in Utqiaġvik, Alaska, during spring of 2004. Credit to William R. Koski, L. Craig George, Bernd Würsig. Bowhead whales breed via sexual reproduction. They have 2 distinct sexes, & are not naturally hermaphroditic. Their breeding system is polyandrous, meaning that a female will take more than one male partner each breeding season. Individuals sexually mature quite late compared to humans, only reaching full maturity at 20 years. After reaching maturity, males & females will begin looking for partners. While breeding is observed year-round, the majority of calves are conceived in late winter, & born from April to June. A male will sing a beautiful song to attract attention from females in the local area until he finds one willing to breed with him. They will then copulate, & the male will have no involvement in the children’s life afterward. The mother will gestate the calf for 12 to 16 months, before giving birth to a single calf. The average calf will be between 4 & 5.5 meters at the time of birth. She will nurse the calf for 6 months to a year, before it gains independence, & swims off into the ocean to start its own life. Female Bowhead Whales typically have a 3 to 4-year interval between having children, to allow themselves time to heal. The Distribution Of The Bowhead Whale Bowhead Whales live almost exclusively in Arctic Regions, which is rather rare for Whales. They are found as far north as Svalbard, Norway, & as far south as Hudson Bay, Canada. Individuals are highly migrational, & do not stay in the same place their entire lives. Bowhead whales are not known for their ability to dive into the deep sea, however, they are still very skilled & agile swimmers. They are able to dive as deep as 400 meters. A photograph of a bowhead whale breaching in the Sea of Okhotsk. Credit to Olga Shpak. The Scientific Details Of The Bowhead Whale Whales are quite infamous for a few things, with one of the main things being their ability to blow water out of a hole atop their head, known as the blowhole. The reason that they do this is that they must breathe through this hole, as they cannot breathe underwater like many marine animals. While diving, they contract the muscles around the blowhole to avoid water coming in, & drowning them. When they blow water from the blowhole, the resulting water can get up to 13 feet high. For clarity, the water blown from the blowhole is not coming from the whale's lungs, it is simply water around the whale that is being cleared so the whale can breathe. Their bones are not hollow but instead are thin, which allows them to move easily & avoid extra weight. Baleen whales do not have conventional teeth, & instead have strong teeth plates used for filtering krill & planktonic organisms from the water. In addition to this, they have frill-like structures around their baleen plates, which catch any debris & prevent them from entering the whale’s mouth or causing harm. Bowhead Whales have the largest mouth of any living mammal. Similar to humans, Bowhead whales must also deal with the issue of parasites & infections. The most common animals to find in this species are Copepods, Nematodes, & various kinds of worms. These parasites can cause a vast amount of issues, including lesions on internal organs. The majority of parasites prefer the internal organs of the Bowhead Whale, leaving their skin relatively clear & smooth. Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity for fur or hair, & three middle ear bones. There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Artiodactyla. which are even-toed ungulates. Species categorized under Artiodactyla are ungulates, hoofed animals which bear weight equally on two of their five toes, these toes are the third & fourth toes. The other three toes are either present, absent, vestigial, or pointing posteriorly. Their infraorder is that of Cetacea. Key characteristics of this infraorder are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size & exclusively carnivorous diet. Another characteristic is their incredible social intelligence. There are roughly 90 species categorized under Cetacea. Their family is Balaenidae, a family of Baleen Whales. It is composed of only 2 living species, those being the Bowhead Whale & the Right Whale. Their genus is Balaena, & is monotypic, meaning that there is only 1 species categorized under it. Their binomial name is Balaena mysticetus. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Bowhead Whale”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the World Wildlife Fund. Retrieval Date: October 11th, 2024. https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/bowhead-whale Citation No. 2: “Bowhead Whale”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Alaska Department of Fish & Game. Retrieval Date: October 11th, 2024. https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/static/education/wns/bowhead_whale.pdf Citation No. 3: “Bowhead Whale”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Retrieval Date: October 11th, 2024. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/bowhead-whale Citation No. 4: “Bowhead Whales”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the International Fund for Animal Welfare. Retrieval Date: October 11th, 2024. https://www.ifaw.org/animals/bowhead-whales Citation No. 5: “Marine Life Encyclopedia Marine Mammals: Bowhead Whales”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Oceana. Retrieval Date: October 12th, 2024. https://oceana.org/marine-life/bowhead-whale/ Citation No. 6: “Bowhead Whale”, Written by J. G. Cooke, & R. Reeves, & Last Updated January 1st, 2018. Published by the International Union For The Conservation Of Nature. Retrieval Date: October 12th, 2024. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/2467/50347659 Citation No. 7: “Balaena Mysticetus”, Written by James Justice, & Published in 2002. Published by the Animal Diversity Web. Retrieval Date: October 12th, 2024. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Balaena_mysticetus/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Olivenbaum Music The Open Book, Topanga Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of the ancient Cypriot city-state Kourion. This photograph depicts its ruins. Credit to Shutterstock. In this article, we are discussing the intriguing & rich history of Cyprus! Cyprus is a small island country in the Mediterranean Sea, off the coast of Turkey. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the third most populous island in the Mediterranean Sea. The isle is approximately 37.22 nautical miles (42.832011 miles or 68.93144 kilometers) from the mainland country of Turkey on Asia Minor. Additionally, is approximately 149 miles long from east to west, & 62 miles from north to south at its widest point. Cyprus has been settled by various groups of people, since at least the Bronze Age approximately 13,000 to 12,000 years ago, giving time for its incredibly interesting & unique culture to develop. The island has been ruled by various empires, the most namely of which are the British Empire, Roman Empire, & Ottoman Empire. The isle is very well known for its rich culture & history, arts, & folk music. A strong part of the local culture is hospitality. Guests & visitors are almost always offered small amounts of food as a sign of appreciation, & are often served with a special kind of silver fork known as the protsoues. Cyprus contains a unique ecoregion known as the Cyprus Mediterranean Forests, known for its endemic species, temperate climate, & vast sprawling landscapes. Approximately 128 plants are endemic to these forests, as well as a sub-species of sheep. The island isn’t only diverse in its terrestrial landscapes, & is also highly diverse in its marine landscapes. This is shown in their beautiful sea caves, rocky shorelines, & seagrass meadows. In this article, we are going to delve into the documented History of Cyprus, the Indigenous Aboriginals of Cyprus, the Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters to affect Cyprus, & the Economy of Cyprus. With that being said, let us delve into the long, complex, & magnificent history of Cyprus. The Documented History Of Cyprus Before Colonization Prehistoric Cyprus As stated in the introduction, human settlement in Cyprus dates back as far as 13,000 years, in the Mesolithic Age. Approximately 12,000 years ago, the European Boar was introduced to the island, which were likely meant to be a source of meat. The first true settlement on Cyprus was at modern Khirokitia, which dates back approximately 9,000 years. This settlement had a population of 2,000, & many large stone houses. A few other ancient settlements or houses are Roudias, & Aetokremnos. The first settlers of the island were farmers & agricultural workers, & did not produce many ceramics or pottery. Many hunted & fished as well. It seems that they introduced domesticated dogs, sheep, goats, certain kinds of deer, & red foxes. Pottery was introduced to the island sometime around 5,000 B.C. Bronze Age Cyprus 3rd Millennium B.C to 1,200 B.C Around the middle of the 3rd Millennium B.C, Pottery was introduced to Cyprus. These Cypriots made many different kinds of ceramics, ranging from vases to bowls, to various kinds of cups. They were often ornate, & are well known for their distinctive designs. These ceramics were completely handmade without the use of a pottery wheel, & continued to be until 1,500 B.C. Around the middle of the third millennium, Cypriots learned how to make bronze by combining tin & copper. Cyprus then became one of the main producers of copper, & traded with other Mediterranean countries. Two port cities in Cyprus were responsible for the majority of exports & imports during the Second Millennium, those cities being Kiton & Enkomi. Kiton served the southeastern parts of the island, while Enkomi served the south. Another city was mentioned across various texts, that city being Alashiya. It is theorized that Alashiya was the capital of the Kingdom of Cyprus. After the 16th century B.C., Cypriots adopted a written script known as Cypro-Minoan, used to write the original language of Cyprus. The original language of Cyprus is known as Eteocypriot, which translates to “Original Cypriot”. By the Archaic Cyprus Period, 1,400 B.C to 1,100 B.C As trade increased between Crete & Mycenaean Greece, Trade between Cyprus & other Mediterranean Nations rapidly increased as well. The capital city of Cyprus, Alashiya, is mentioned in several ancient languages & documents, including Ancient Egyptian, Akkadian, Hittite, & Ancient Greek. Following the raids & large-scale destruction caused by the Sea Peoples, many Mycenaean Greek People fled to Cyprus seeking refuge. Beginning in 1,250, many Bronze Age Civilizations began to fall into decline & disarray, & ultimately, ended up destroyed. This event is known as the Late Bronze Age Collapse. After the collapse, Cyprus was plunged into a set of Dark Ages, lasting from approximately 1,150 B.C, to 850 B.C. Archaic Cyprus 1,050 B.C to 600 B.C The city-states of Cyprus were ruled by a monarchy, rather than a ruling class. Around 1,050 B.C., Cyprus was hit by a massive earthquake, which leveled many towns & structures. While many of them were quickly rebuilt, the southern port city of Enkomi never completely recovered, with the majority of residents moving to Salamis, a city that occupies the area of modern Famagusta. The other main city at the time, Kition, became temporarily abandoned as well. Seeing an opportunity to take over the Copper-Rich Trade Magnate, the Tyrians invaded the island of Cyprus. As Kition was abandoned, they chose to siege that city first. Kition quickly became one of the cultural centers of the Phoenicians, with the goddess Astarte being venerated there. The Phoenicians used the island to build a trading network between their kingdom, Egypt, Greece, Italy, & the entirety of the western Mediterranean. The island had such an influence, that the Hebrew word Kittim, meaning people from Kition, became used as a blanket term for anyone Western, no matter their nationality. Around 900 B.C., King Šalmaneser the III of the Assyrians began demanding tribute from all Phoenician cities. As a result, Cyprus began exporting large amounts of wood & copper to the Assyrian Empire. After Colonization Egyptian Cyprus Cyprus temporarily became independent when the Assyrians lost control of the island, however, this independence would not last long. In 560 B.C., King Amasis of Egypt began occupying Cyprus, as he was anticipating that the Babylonians would attempt to attack them. While the Cypriot kings were still formally in charge of their city-states at this time, they recognized the authority of the Egyptian Government. The Egyptians wouldn’t last very long as the rulers of Cyprus, as the Persian King, Cyrus the Great, would soon conquer the island. Around 530 B.C., Cyprus officially became a part of the Persian Empire. Persian Cyprus 530 B.C to 499 B.C As stated above, Cyprus officially became a part of the Persian Empire in 530. The Cypriot Kings were allowed to remain as rulers of their city-states, however, they once again, respected the authority of the Persian Empire. This would change with the rule of King Darius the Great, who strengthened Persia’s grip over the island. Around 499 B.C., the Ionian Revolt began to take shape, so in order to restore order in the Western Regions of the Empire, the Persians sent an army that would pass through Cyprus. The army not only helped with the revolt, but it assisted in settling the tensions in Cyprus. Onesilus, the brother of a Cypriot King, realized that the island was the perfect location to attack Phoenician ports. He requested assistance from Greek Rebels to assist with this, & he quickly received it. With the end goal of controlling Cyprus, he besieged each city state of the island, conquering every single one except for Amathus. The Persians quickly sent troops from Cilicia to stop the uprising, culminating in a massive naval campaign against the Greeks & Cypriots, which resulted in a win for the Cypriots. What followed was an equally large land battle, which the Persians won. In the end, Cyprus was reorganized into approximately 10 city-states, with the majority loyal Persia, yet open to Greek ideas. Greek Commander Cimon attempted to siege the island in 466 B.C., & managed to defeat the Persians in the Battle of Eurymedon, however, he was ultimately unable to capture the island. Around the 390s, King Euagoras of the city-state Salamis attempted to unify Cyprus, with the end goal of ruling the whole island. He attempted to gain the favor of the Persians by sending ships to their naval campaign in Sparta, however, he did not succeed. Euagoras decided to revolt against the Persians as a result. He managed to unify the majority of the island, & even expanded his influence as far as Phoenicia. The Persians invaded Cyprus to stop the revolt, & resulting in a win for the Persians. Euagoras was forced to sign a peace treaty, giving up most of his land & power, yet keeping control of Salamis. While Persian Control over Cyprus was restored, this would not be the last revolt. In 350 B.C., another revolt occurred, which was promptly suppressed by King Artaxerxes of Persia. Egyptian Cyprus 323 B.C to 58 B.C The Cypriots participated in the Greek siege of Tyre in Persia, fighting alongside Alexander the Great's Troops. Upon Alexander's death in 323 B.C., Cyprus was fought over viciously by his successors. At first, it was occupied by Ptolemy of Egypt, though that would soon be interrupted. Antigonus I the One-Eyed, the successor of Alexander, attacked the island with his son in 306 B.C. The Egyptian Forces were overwhelmed, & quickly defeated. The island remained in the hands of the Greeks until the Battle of Ipsus in 301 B.C. when it was returned to Ptolemy. At this point, all power was lost from the Kings of Cyprus. Many of the resources from Cyprus such as wine, wood, & copper were hoarded by the Egyptian Treasury from this point onwards. It remained a part of Egypt until 58 B.C., with the conquest of the Romans. Roman Cyprus 58 B.C to 965 A.D A photograph of the Tomb of Kings in Paphos. It is a necropolis containing a series of eight well preserved tombs of well respected officials of the era. It was believed to be used up to 4th century AD. Credit to Shutterstock. In 58 B.C., the island was officially conquered by the Roman Republic. It then became a part of the province of Cicilia & Anatolia, before being taken back by the Ptolemaic Empire of Egypt during a civil war, then finally becoming an independent province in 31 B.C. The rich copper mines of the island were gifted to Herod the Great or Judea, a compatriot of the Romans who assisted in the war. Although Salamis was the largest city on the island, New Paphos was elected to be the new Capital, as well as the Religious center. The Romans built a new Cyprus, with the best engineers building aqueducts, roads, bridges, temples, & gymnasiums. This new Cyprus was prosperous, & rich with beauty & culture. Around 116 A.D., several Messianic revolts occurred on the island, though they were quickly suppressed. Two major earthquakes caused much damage to Cyprus in 332 & 336 A.D., causing the capital to be moved to Salamis, which was then renamed Constantia. As the people of Rome began to convert to Christianity, the Cypriots followed along. Christian Churches & Basilicas were established in many cities, & given autonomy within the church. The Churches of Cyprus were made to be autocephalous, meaning that they did not have to report to the leaders of the mainstream church, a status they keep in the modern day. Very few noteworthy things occurred on the island until 647 when the Umayyad Caliphate attacked Cyprus. This conflict lasted until approximately 680, when the Byzantine Empire decided to share the rule of Cyprus with the Umayyad Caliphate, splitting the taxes evenly. This agreement was maintained until 965 when the agreement was broken & the isle was taken by the Byzantines. The arts flourished during this time, with many mosaics & paintings surviving into modern day. Byzantine Cyprus A photograph of the Church of Agios Lazaros. It is a gorgeous Byzantine church built between the late 9th & early 10th centuries. It is allegedly located at the site of the tomb of Saint Lazarus of Bethany. 965 A.D to 1561 A.D As stated above, the island became a part of the Byzantine Empire in 965 when Emperor Nicephorus II of Phocas gained complete control of the island. Around 1185 A.D., Issac Comnenus, the governor of Cyprus, rebelled & declared himself emperor of the Byzantine Empire. He successfully defended against attacks from the Empire, however during a battle in 1191 against English Soldiers sent by King Richard I, he was captured & imprisoned. The island was promptly captured by British Forces, & sold Guy of Lusignan, the disgraced King of Jerusalem. Kingdom of Cyprus 1192 A.D to 1489 A.D Guy called himself The Lord of Cyprus & lived on the island. He established the Kingdom of Cyprus, a kingdom that would last from 1192 to 1489. Soon after purchasing the island, he brought over many families & individuals who had lost their lands & livelihoods in the Siege of Jerusalem. Unfortunately, Guy passed away in 1192, & was succeeded by his brother Amalric. Amalric was soon crowned king of Cyprus by the Holy Roman Empire. During the next hundred years, Cyprus gained a reputation for being a place of immense wealth, and affluence, as well as the place where many nobles resided. Famagusta, one of the islands main cities, was well known as a trading center for the entire Mediterranean. In 1361, new Cypriot King Peter I organized a crusade with support from Western European Mercenaries, & began besieging cities. He managed to secure the city of Adalia, & soon after in 1365, sacked Alexandria in the Alexandrian Crusade. Unfortunately, after 3 days, he couldn’t adequately defend the city, & abandoned his conquest. During his son’s ascension to the throne, the tensions between the city-states of Genoa & Venice worsens over the trade of Cyprus, resulting in Genoa stealing possession of Famagusta & holding it for almost a century. This heavily affected the economy of Cyprus, leading to a negative downturn. In the year 1429, the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt invaded & sacked the island, forcing it to pay tribute. The final Lusignan King, James II, managed to seize the throne with the help of the Egyptians, & remove the Genovese from the island in 1464. He passed away soon after, with his wife, Caterina Cornaro, being the last monarch of Cyprus. She came under strong pressure from the Venetians, & finally, in 1489. Venetian Rule Of Cyprus 1489 A.D to 1571 A.D A photograph of Kyrenia Castle, a relic of 16th century Venetian rule over Cyprus. Credit to https://www.thediscoveriesof.com/cyprus-landmarks/. The Republic of Venice ruled Cyprus for 82 years from 1489 to 1571. Ottoman Cyprus 1571 A.D to 1878 The Ottoman’s took over Cyprus in the year of 1571 after capturing Nicosia. Soon after, the city of Famagusta would fall as well. Thousands of Muslims migrated to the island as a result, & settled largely in North Cyprus. Approximately 30,000 settlers came, most being Sunni Muslim. The Ottomans didn’t care much for Cyprus or the people of Cyprus, leading to a corrupt & inefficient government. There were various uprising British Cyprus 1878 A.D to August 16th, 1960 A.D In the year 1878, it was deemed that the island of Cyprus would remain under sovereignty of the Ottomans while being officially administrated by Britain. During World War 1 Britain would annex Cyprus from the Turkish for strategic use, which was recognized under the Treaty of Lausanne. In 1925, Cyprus officially became a crown colony, meaning that it was governed by England. The island was not affected much by the Second World War, apart from multiple airstrikes. Modern Cyprus August 16th, 1960 A.D to Present Finally, on August 16th, 1960, Cyprus gained its independence from Britain, & became an independent Country. After much tension between Greek Cypriots & the Turkish Cypriots, & the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus, the Turkish Cypriots declared themselves to be an independent state on the 15th of November, 1983. The state of Northern Cyprus is only recognized by Turkey as of publishing this article, & comprises the Northeastern parts of Cyprus. The Indigenous Aboriginals Of Cyprus Greek Cypriots Greek Cypriots are the main ethnic group of Cyprus, comprising between 76% & 98.8% of the population. These Cypriots are originally descended from people of Greek Origin. Their culture is very similar to Turkish Cypriots in many ways, however there are a few key differences. They primarily speak Cypriot Greek, & Standard Greek. The majority of Greek Cypriots are Christian, & are members of the Greek Orthodox Faith. Turkish Cypriots Turkish Cypriots are the second ethnic group of Cyprus, comprising approximately 10.2% of the population. They primarily speak Standard Turkish, & Cypriot Turkish. The Turkish Cypriot Ethnicity exists as a result of the Ottoman Conquest of 1571 when approximately 30,000 Turkish Settlers came to the island. Individuals are primarily Sunni Muslims. Very few Turkish Cypriots still live in Cyprus today, as many have immigrated to the United Kingdom, Turkey, or other European Countries for economic development. The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect Cyprus Disaster No. 1: 1995 Paphos Earthquake On the morning of February 23rd, 1995, a 5.9 magnitude Earthquake struck Cyprus. The earthquake originated approximately 40 kilometers northwest of the city of Paphos. The Earthquake caused damage in several countries, with Cyprus taking most of it. The shaking could be felt as far as Israel, Lebanon, & even Turkey. As a result of the Earthquake, 2 people passed away in a building collapse, & 5 sustained injuries. 70 homes were destroyed, while 500 sustained minor damages. Disaster No. 2: The 2004 Locust Invasion Of Cyprus In November 2004, Cyprus experienced a swarm of thousands of Locust Insects. They seem to have originated in Northern & Central Africa, carried to Cyprus by strong winds. They first appeared on the Western Shores, then quickly spread inland. These locusts decimated potato crops in the Paphos District, & fields in the Limassol District. A spraying initiative was carried out, which killed many of the locusts. It seems that they were attracted to Cyprus by the unusually hot weather, & heavy rain. Disaster No. 3: The Cypriot Flash Floods Of 2010 On February 27th, 2010, major rain caused flooding in the Kyrenia & Nicosia regions of Cyprus. There were no recorded cases of injuries or casualties as a result of the flooding. Approximately 3,000 people were affected by the flooding, & 700 homes, 56 offices, & 27 vehicles were reported to have damage. The Economy Of Cyprus Cyprus has an economy based on tourism, & agriculture. The most popular fruits grown in the Greek areas of Cyprus are grapes, deciduous fruits, potatoes, certain vegetables, olives, & cereal grains. In the Turkish areas, crops such as citrus fruits, wheat, barley, carrots, & tobacco are more popular. Fishing is a very small part of the economy, as most fish are still imported. In 2008, Cyprus Joined the Eurozone, adopting the Euro as its official currency. Their GDP per capita is approximately 37,149$, while their GDP is 34.221 billion U.S.D. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Cyprus (Historical Overview)”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for Turkey. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2024. https://www.mfa.gov.tr/cyprus-_historical-overview_.en.mfa Citation No. 2: “History of Cyprus”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for Cyprus. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2024. http://www.mfa.gov.cy/mfa/highcom/highcomcanberra.nsf/cyprus02_en/cyprus02_en?OpenDocument Citation No. 3: “History of Cyprus”, Written by Herman W. Goult, & John S. Bowman, & Published on July 26th, 1999. Published by Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/place/Cyprus/History Citation No. 4: “Flood in Cyprus”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the United Nations. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2024. https://www.un-spider.org/advisory-support/emergency-support/3288/flood-cyprus Citation No. 5: “Today in Earthquake History”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the United States Geological Survey. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2024. https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/today/index.php?month=2&day=23 Citation No. 6: “Cyprus Suffers A Rare Locust Invasion”, Written By Unknown, & Published on November 1st, 2024. Published by ReliefWeb. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2024. https://reliefweb.int/report/cyprus/cyprus-suffers-rare-locust-invasion Citation No. 7: “Economy Of Cyprus”, Written by Herman W. Goult, & John S. Bowman, & Published on July 26th, 1999. Published by Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/place/Cyprus/Economy Citation No. 8: “History”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Cyprus Profile. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2024. https://www.cyprusprofile.com/page/country-information/history?lang=en Citation No. 8: “Prehistory Of Cyprus” Written by Unknown, & Published in 2017. Published by Livius. Retrieval Date: September 26th, 2024. https://www.livius.org/articles/place/cyprus/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A brilliant portrait of Dr. Nicole Hokulani Yamase. Credit to One Reef. This article is part of our Marine Hall of Distinction collection. In this special collection, we discuss the marine biologists who have contributed most to marine biology and oceanography. We do this to commemorate these marine biologists and show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. Today's marine scientist is Dr. Nicole Yamase. Dr. Nicole Yamase is a Micronesian marine biologist who is the first Micronesian and Pacific Islander, fourth woman, first marine scientist, youngest in age and only the 20th out of now 27 individuals to ever reach the Challenger Deep in Micronesia’s Mariana Trench. Yamase’s research and work seamlessly combines her Micronesian cultural history with science respecting both sides of the equation while working to open doors to marine science for women, minorities and the underprivileged. In today’s article, we will delve into her formative years and education, her personal life and career, as well as her ongoing achievements, awards, and accomplishments to date. With that being said, let’s plunge into the extraordinary life of Dr. Nicole Yamase! A photograph of Dr. Nicole Yamase with Former President Maderngebuked, & Sesario Sewralur preparing to dive in the Limiting Factor submersible into the Palau Trench. Credit to Temara Greenstone-Alefaio. Her Education & Formative Years A large cluster of approximately 600 islands with a collective surface area larger than that of the country of France times five; sits in the South Pacific Ocean like a crown of jewels to the ocean’s majesty. Monikered Micronesia, these islands form part of the ‘Oceania’ assemblage of Pacific Islands which include Polynesia and Melanesia. The most popular of Micronesia’s islands are the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) which are sub-divided into four main ‘states’ of Kosrae, Chuuk, Yap and Pohnpei. Micronesia supports a lower-end population combined of only 115,000 Micronesians with most residing on Yap, Pohnpei and Chuuk. These ancient Micronesian islands surfaced by way of volcanos peeking through the ocean’s sparkling surface creating a web of hospitable land masses. Local Micronesian tribes have inhabited these islands since this volcanic creation and root their own personal heritage to being descendants of the ocean gods. These tribes’ main principles surround culturally respecting, idolizing and protecting the clear blue waters. The Federated States of Micronesia sports the world’s largest manta stingray populations dating back to the formation of these Micronesian Islands and is reflected in its cultural birthright. FSM’s creation myths lay the legendary foundation of a frightened, inexperienced woman exiled during pregnancy to give birth in the Micronesian waters without assistance. A stingray appeared to the expectant mother helping to deliver her newborn while continuing to aid in the afterbirth healing. The stingray became the totem protector and spirit animal to the Micronesian tribes and earned the role of ‘mother’ to the newly formed Stingray Clans. Dennis Yamase whose own soul is connected to the ocean with a personal interest in marine biology; was born into this Stingray Clan while the elders in his family tree held roles of navigators and explorers consequentially adopting a canoe as their family emblem. Dennis’s wife also allied spiritually to nature and the sea; respecting her culture and holding its tantric fables dear to her heart. It was legend, myth and culture that sealed the birth and fate of future Micronesian glass ceiling-breaking marine biologist Nicole Yamase to not only inherit the oceanic passions of Dennis and her mother; but equally of that of the ocean gods and stingrays from which her clan believe to have evolved. Nicole Yamase was born (1992) in Pohnpei but her father’s job circulated her childhood to Palau, Saipan and back to Pohnpei before formally settling roots on Chuuk. All the better, as this gave Yamase the liberty to explore sea life, coral reefs, and water plants at the encouragement of her father; solidifying her romance to the ocean and her future profession. Although raised Catholic, religion wasn’t a firm life routine for the Yamase family and Dennis Yamase alternatively instilled into his daughter the benefits of altruism/doing good unto others and making a positive impact foreshadowing exactly what Yamase would grow to encompass. Spending most of her days snorkeling and exploring the ocean paved through her ancestors; Yamase entered her high school era at the esteemed, private Xaviar High School in Chuuk where alongside the traditional studies; students are encouraged to participate in an intensive biology course. It was here that Yamase’s eyes began to twinkle at the possibility of a future working with the ocean that was already in her DNA. “Our ancestors were scientists from the very beginning. They observed and collected data … they tested and tried new things,” Yamase pondered as she realized that this was her creation story and her future. A photograph of the prestigious Jesuit boarding school, Xavier High School, in Micronesia. This was the high-school that Dr. Nicole Yamase attended. Credit to the Embassy of Japan in the Federated States of Micronesia. Yamase’s path to formal marine biology started with her undergraduate years at Chaminade University of Honolulu where she dove head-first into the sciences earning a Bachelor of Arts in Biology and a Bachelor of Science in Environmental Studies in 2014. Due to this double-major, Yamase bypassed the traditional Masters requirement and jumped directly to pursuing a doctorate in Marine Biology at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa becoming the first Micronesian to follow such an academic path. Yamase was staunch in her perspective of combining scientific research with a cultural approach respective to her ancestors and clan; using this arduous drive as her motivation to apply for marine biology summer internships during her undergraduate years. This confidence was also gifted to Yamase via Dr. Gail Grabowsky, Dean of the School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, who saw Yamase’s potential and urged her to apply for these beneficial opportunities. To her delight, Yamase received sponsorships to multiple internships including such as studying macroalgae in Miami, Florida’s Biscayne Bay which directly contributed to being recognized by the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa as a candidate for a PhD in Marine Biology. Yamase would go on to focus her thesis and dissertation on the climactic impact on macroalgae and off-shore plants as the basic building blocks of the food chain. A breathtaking photograph of a seal swimming through a kelp forest. Kelp is one of the most notable kinds of macroalgae. This photograph won the University of Miami’s Rosentiel School of Marine & Atmospheric Sciences Underwater photography contest. Credit to Kyle McBurnie. Her Personal Life & Career In 2021, a year shy of both her 30th birthday and of receiving her doctorate degree in Marine Biology; Yamase followed in the footprints of her navigator/explorer ancestors and entered the pages of history annals. In an exploration program sponsored by her university; Yamase caught the attention of Victor Vescovo, the owner of the ‘Limiting Factor’: the only submersible able to descend to the Mariana Trench (the deepest canyon and ‘Last Frontier’ of the world’s oceans) and the Challenger Deep (the lowest seabed of the Mariana Trench). Even though the Mariana Trench resides in Micronesian territory; no Micronesians have ever made the journey to the trench. This all changed when Vescovo and his committee asked Yamase to board the Limiting Factor with Vescovo firm in his conviction that it is was overdue for a Micronesian to visit the “part of the ocean in their own backyard”. On the morning of the exploration, Yamase prepared by donning a cowry shell necklace reflective of her culture and clutching a canoe figurine representing her navigator family forefathers to descend four hours down reflecting, “The weight of the journey was not just representing myself, but Micronesia, and more broadly, the Pacific. I carried an ocean of people, cultures, traditions, legends, history and sacredness. That responsibility was overwhelming”. Sadly, Yamase’s two hours exploring the Challenger Deep momentarily tempered her joy as she observed rope and other debris on the ocean floor showcasing the poor consideration humans display to the oceans. Yamase then ascended the return trip of four hours totaling a 10 - hour journey and resurfaced to become the first Micronesian and Pacific Islander, fourth woman, first marine scientist, youngest in age and only the 20th out of now 27 individuals to ever reach the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench etching her name into ocean science history. Yamase returned to the ocean bottom in 2022 (the same year as finishing her doctorate); visiting the Yap Trench in the Western Pacific Ocean at a depth of 27,976 feet (8,527 meters) being one of two women on this descent and the first Micronesian; signaling history once again. Since earning her PhD, Yamase has become the Director of Impact at One Reef - a coral reef conservation organization based in Micronesia where she connects the local Micronesian communities to the mission of One Reef resulting in a symbiotic relationship benefiting coral reefs and the oceans. In this role, Yamase also works to bridge the gap between the cultural importance and connection of Micronesia’s ocean culture with science. In 2025, Yamase was the subject of a documentary film directed by Daniel H. Lin following her history-making exploration of the Mariana Trench and Challenger Deep. However, instead of solely being a biopic documentary; the film, "Remathau: People of the Ocean”, compounded into a much more profound message with Yamase highlighting Micronesia’s cultures and the importance of the ocean to Pacific Islanders. The film won the Pasifika award at the 2025 Hawaiʻi International Film Festival (HIFF45); and as of June 2026, is being screened at multiple film festivals targeting a national release. The official film poster for the documentary Remathau: People of the Ocean, featuring Dr. Nicole Yamase. Credit to Nicole Yamase. In her spare hours, Yamase is a regular on the marine science lecture circuit with a poignant message of encouraging women to break gender confines in STEM and especially those in underprivileged and minority communities like Pacific Islanders. “If I can do it,” she said, “they can do it too”, Yamase contends. Yamase’s future goal is to found a marine science lab on Pohnpei opening the doors to local Pacific Islanders interested in marine science especially for those unable to secure higher education in the fieldwork. Yamase never forgets her father Dennis Yamase’s message to leave a positive impact asserting, “We need to take care of our natural resources for future generations. I hope we can leave this place better than when we came.” Her Awards, Accomplishments & Achievements 1. Yamase earned a Bachelor of Arts in Biology and a Bachelor of Science in Environmental Studies in her undergrad which allowed her to bypass the traditional Masters requirement and jump directly to pursuing a doctorate in Marine Biology at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa becoming the first Micronesian to follow such an academic path. 2. Yamase was the first Micronesian and Pacific Islander, fourth woman, first marine scientist, youngest in age and only the 20th out of now 27 individuals to ever reach the Challenger Deep in Micronesia’s Mariana Trench. 3. In 2022, Yamase was one of the first two women and the first Micronesian to descend to the Yap Trench. 4. Yamase is the subject of a documentary film highlighting her descent to the Mariana Trench and Challenger Deep while exploring her culture and heritage. The film won the Pasifika award at the 2025 Hawaiʻi International Film Festival (HIFF45) and is being screened in multiple film festivals in 2026 targeting a national release. A photograph of Dr. Nicole Yamase exuberantly waving at another marine scientist while preparing to dive into the Challenger Deep. Credit to Caladan Oceanic. Directories / Credits 1: “Interview: Dr. Nicole Yamase”, Written by Dr. Nicole Yamase. Published on Unknown Date by Oceangraphic Magazine https://oceanographicmagazine.com/features/dr-nicole-yamase/ 2: Dr. Nicole Yamase contact card format at Pacific Leadership Assistance Network https://www.pacificleaders.com/dr-nicole-yamase/ 3: One Reef company website format https://onereef.org/ 4: “Dr Nicole Yamase on Reaching the Deepest Part of the Ocean” Podcast format. First Aired August 10, 2023 by Radio National Breakfast https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/radionational-breakfast/dr-nicole-yamase-on-reaching-the-deepest-part-of-the-ocean/102714124 5: “Micronesian Scientist Becomes First Pacific Islander to Reach Ocean's Deepest Point”, Written by Jon Letman. Published on April 3, 2021 by The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/04/micronesian-scientist-becomes-first-pacific-islander-to-reach-oceans-deepest-point 6: “Yamase Dives Deep to Inspire New Generation”, Written by Unknown Author. Published on May 1, 2023 by the University of Guam https://www.uog.edu/center-for-island-sustainability/blog/yamase-dives-deep-into-future 7: “Under the Sea: Into Challenger Deep”, Written by Unknown Author. Published on April 12, 2021 by Chaminade University of Honolulu https://chaminade.edu/under-the-sea-into-challenger-deep/ 8: “First Pacific Islander to Reach the Ocean's Deepest Point”, Written by Unknown Author. Published on Unknown Date by The Coconet https://www.thecoconet.tv/coco-learning/save-our-ocean/first-pacific-islander-to-reach-the-oceans/ 9: “1st Pacific Islander to Reach Ocean’s Deepest Point is UH Grad Student”, Written by UH News. Published on April 6, 2021 by the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa News https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2021/04/06/ocean-deepest-point-grad-student/ 10: “Nicole Yamase: Honoring Her Culture through Science”, Written by Kate Uesugi. Published on May 26, 2021 by The Humanist https://thehumanist.com/features/articles/nicole-yamase-honoring-her-culture-through-science/ 11: “Yamase Wants to Inspire More Micronesians to Become Scientists”, Written by Phill Leon Guerrero. Published on April 8, 2021 by The Guam Daily Post https://www.postguam.com/news/local/yamase-wants-to-inspire-more-micronesians-to-become-scientists/article_1d1e71f4-96b2-11eb-acf4-3395b401e88b.html 12: “Palau and Yap Trench Expedition Team Honored with Reception Hosted by Micronesian Voyaging Society and PICRC”, Written by Unknown Author. Published on July 22, 2022 by Palau International Coral Reef Center https://picrc.org/palau-and-yap-trench-expedition-team-honored-with-reception-hosted-by-micronesian-voyaging-society-and-picrc/ 13: “Nicole Yamase: The Ocean is a Mirror” Podcast format. First Aired April 22, 2024 by Plant Kingdom https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/nicole-yamase-the-ocean-is-a-mirror/id1736417899?i=1000653193975&l=zh-Hans-CN 14: “Yap: Micronesia’s Kingdom of the Mantas”, Written by Unknown Author. Published on Unknown Date by Dive Training https://dtmag.com/thelibrary/yap-micronesias-kingdom-of-the-mantas/ 15: “Micronesia Country Profile”, Written by Unknown Author. Published on October 27, 2023 by BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15494620 16: “Nicole Yamase is the First Micronesian to Dive to Challenger Deep” YouTube Video format. Published March 24, 2021 by Caladan Oceanic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=860Or8vTbdY 17: “Remathau: People of the Ocean” Documentary Trailer and Description format. Published on Unknown Date by Hawaiʻi International Film Festival (HIFF45) https://hiff.org/events/remathaupeopleoftheocean/ 18: “Remathau: People of the Ocean” Documentary Trailer and Description format. Published on Unknown Date by Nia Tero https://www.niatero.org/films/remathau

Introduction In the 200 years since the Industrial Revolution began, humanity has been rapidly releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere — but it doesn’t always stay there. Our oceans absorb 30% of the carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere, and it’s changing the chemistry of the water through a process known as ocean acidification. In this article, we’ll describe exactly how ocean acidification occurs, its impacts on marine life, and what solutions are underway. The Disaster: Ocean Acidification Carbon is stored in the air, the ground, vegetation, and the ocean. When we burn fossil fuels, we’re taking carbon from underground and releasing it into the air. When we cut down forests, we release the carbon stored in those trees back into the atmosphere. In essence, human activity has been shifting CO2 concentrations away from carbon sinks (systems that absorb carbon from the atmosphere) and back towards the atmosphere instead. As we have released more and more carbon dioxide, our atmospheric CO2 concentration has increased dramatically. A lot of that carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere, where it traps heat and contributes to global warming. However, almost a third of it dissolves into the ocean, our largest carbon sink. In fact, since the Industrial Revolution in the 1700s, our oceans have absorbed 525 billion tons of CO2 from the atmosphere. Today the oceans are absorbing 22 million tons per day. Carbon sinks are systems that remove CO2 from the atmosphere. Forests, soils, and the ocean are all examples of carbon sinks. Fossil fuels emit carbon dioxide back to the atmosphere. Credit to Emily Cohen. Without carbon sinks, our atmosphere would have even more CO2 than it currently does, and our planet would be warming even faster than it already is. By taking so much of our excess carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, the oceans have slowed the rise in global temperatures, but it has come at a cost. The excess CO2 in our oceans is now changing the chemistry of the water and making it more acidic. To better understand the process of ocean acidification, we need to break down this chemistry. Acidity is determined based on the presence of H+ ions. The higher the concentration of H+ ions, the more acidic something is. The pH scale is used to measure acidity where a zero on the scale is very acidic, a 14 is very basic, and a 7 is true neutral. In our oceans, when carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water (H2O), carbonic acid (H2CO3) forms. An acid is a substance that releases H+ ions, so by nature, the presence of carbonic acid increases the presence of H+ ions in the water thereby making it more acidic. As such, an increase in carbon dioxide directly increases the ocean’s acidity by producing more carbonic acid, which releases more H+ ions. On the pH scale, the ocean’s average score has fallen 0.1 units, from 8.2 during pre-Industrial times, to 8.1 today. Though this may not seem like a large drop, this slight shift toward the acidic end of the scale has significant implications for marine life. Impacts Ocean acidification is occurring far too quickly for marine organisms to adapt. The chemistry of seawater affects the daily living, growth, and reproduction of marine organisms, so even this small change in water acidity has big repercussions. Animals that build shells and skeletons are particularly affected by ocean acidification because they rely on chemicals in ocean water to build those structures — chemicals that are now depleted by ocean acidification. Oysters, clams, snails, crabs, lobsters, and corals are just some of the animals that build their shells/skeletons by using the calcium ions and carbonate molecules naturally present in seawater. These two chemicals combine to form the animal’s calcium carbonate structures (shells/skeletons). However, H+ ions also bond to carbonate and have a stronger attraction to carbonate than calcium ions. As such, the increased presence of H+ ions in today’s more acidic seawater decreases the availability of carbonate for calcium carbonate structure building. The H+ ions essentially “steal” carbonate away before calcium ions can bond to form shells/skeletons. Sea snail shell dissolved in acidic seawater. Photo Credit: David Littschwager / National Geographic Society. Not only do H+ ions get in the way of building calcium carbonate structures, but if there are enough H+ ions present in the water, they can actually begin to break down shells/skeletons that are already built. Therefore, ocean acidification makes it harder for animals to build their calcium carbonate structures and easier for those structures to break apart once built. Ocean acidification can also hurt larvae, as larvae are small and therefore more vulnerable to changes in acidity. This can cause issues with development and the ability to reach a healthy adulthood. On the other hand, the increase in carbon dioxide in our ocean may encourage plant and algae growth, as these species rely on CO2 for photosynthesis. More acidic conditions have been shown to increase growth and reproduction for seagrasses. However, there are other stressors (such as pollution) hurting these populations more than acidification is likely to help them. It is therefore increasingly important to address the root cause and impacts of ocean acidification going forward to maintain healthy conditions for marine life. Recovery The most important solution for slowing ocean acidification is to decrease carbon emissions. The less CO2 we add to the atmosphere, the less CO2 will end up in our oceans, and the less acidic our seawater will become. Our seawater is already too acidic though, and our atmosphere is already too polluted with CO2. In order to truly reduce the impacts of ocean acidification, we need not only to limit our future emissions, but also to remedy our past emissions by removing the excess CO2 currently in the air. There are two main ways to do so: 1) preserving and increasing natural carbon sinks, and 2) implementing man-made carbon capture and storage. The ocean is our largest natural carbon sink, but there is great potential for other systems to absorb more carbon dioxide as well. For example, forests and vegetation hold massive carbon sequestration potential. Protecting old growth forests, mangroves, and other plant ecosystems can help decrease CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere. While deforestation and wildfires release all the carbon previously stored in these carbon sinks, reforestation and conservation efforts can preserve and expand their ability to remove carbon from the air. Man-made carbon capture and storage is a technology that works by filtering carbon out of the atmosphere and storing it underground. This is often done at the site of CO2 sources such as power plants. Utilizing this technology to help remove carbon from the atmosphere can help decrease CO2 concentrations and slow ocean acidification. Conclusion Ocean acidification is a direct result of human activities that increase CO2 in the atmosphere. The ocean, our largest carbon sink, has been absorbing that carbon dioxide and slowing global warming. However, it has come at the cost of marine life. A more acidic ocean hurts animals with calcium carbonate structures and damages many species development at the larvae stage. In the coming decades, we will need to prioritize our natural carbon sinks and focus on removing carbon already present in the atmosphere. Doing so will slow the rate of acidification and help maintain healthy seawater for marine life to flourish in. Citations / Directories Citation No. 1: “Ocean Acidification”, Written by Unknown, Published on September 25th, 2025. Published by NOAA. Retrieval Date: May 28th, 2026. https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-acidification Citation No. 2: “Ocean Acidification", Written by The Ocean Portal Team, Published on Unknown Date. Published by Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieval Date: May 29th, 2026. https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification Citation No. 3: “Effects of Ocean and Coastal Acidification on Marine Life,” Written by Unknown, Published on April 21, 2026. Published by the EPA. Retrieval Date: June 1st, 2026. https://www.epa.gov/ocean-acidification/effects-ocean-and-coastal-acidification-marine-life Citation No. 4: “Shell Dissolves in Seawater”, Written by Unknown, Published in April 2015. Published by Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieval Date: June 1st, 2026. https://ocean.si.edu/planet-ocean/temperature-chemistry/shell-dissolves-seawater Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J‘s Kitchen Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of a beautiful stretch of beach along the Cypriot coast. Credit to Condé Nast Traveller. In today’s article, we are going to be diving into the oceans surrounding Cyprus! Cyprus is a small Island Country in the Mediterranean Sea, off the coast of Turkey. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the third most populous island in the Mediterranean Sea. The isle is approximately 37.22 nautical miles (42.832011 miles or 68.93144 kilometers) from the mainland country of Turkey on Asia Minor. Additionally, is approximately 149 miles long from east to west, & 62 miles from north to south at its widest point. Cyprus has been settled by various groups of people, since at least the Bronze Age approximately 13,000 to 12,000 years ago, giving time for its incredibly interesting & unique culture to develop. The isle is very well known for its rich culture & history, arts, & folk music. A strong part of the local culture is Hospitality. Guests & visitors are almost always offered small amounts of food as a sign of appreciation, & are often served with a special kind of silver fork known as the protsoues. Cyprus contains a unique ecoregion known as the Cyprus Mediterranean Forests, known for its endemic species, temperate climate, & vast sprawling landscapes. Approximately 128 plants are endemic to these forests, as well as a sub-species of sheep. The island isn’t only diverse in its terrestrial landscapes, & is also highly diverse in its marine landscapes. This is shown in their beautiful sea caves, rocky shorelines, & seagrass meadows. In this article, we are going to delve into the Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Depth, & Marine Geography Of The Oceans Surrounding Cyprus, the Marine Ecosystems Of Cyprus, the Marine Flora & Fauna Of Cyprus, & How Ocean Acidification & Rising Oceanic Temperatures are Affecting Cyprus’s Oceans. With that being said, let us delve into the beautiful Mediterranean Waters surrounding Cyprus. The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Depth, & Marine Geography of The Oceans Surrounding Cyprus The salinity for the oceans surrounding Cyprus is very high, at 39.1 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1000-gram increments of water, & for every 1000 grams of water, a certain amount is salt. This measurement is called Parts Per Thousand, or Practical Salinity Units. There are not many known Brine Pools in Cyprus, nor are there many salt deposits. The tidal charts for Cyprus can be found on a plethora of websites, including https://www.tidetime.org, https://www.tide-forecast.com, https://www.surfline.com, & https://www.tideschart.com. The tide in Cyprus generally doesn’t go over 1.25 meters high, or go below -0.65 meters. The temperature charts can be found on similar websites, such as https://www.seatemperature.org, https://www.tideschart.com, https://seatemperature.info, & https://www.surf-forecast.com. Using the information provided in these charts, the average yearly oceanic temperature is approximately 22.175° Celsius (71.915° Fahrenheit). Using a wetsuit guide, it is recommended that swimmers as well as those who wish to partake in oceanic sports should wear a wetsuit with a thickness of 3 millimeters or more. Generally, the island’s beaches are safe for swimming. There is the issue of strong waves, however there are usually warning signs to indicate them. There are rip currents, however the rip currents are not very strong. Cyprus has some of the most polluted beaches in all of the Mediterranean, due to the high amount of consumer plastics being thrown into the ocean. The majority of the pollution is caused by plastic, & plastic breaks up into microplastics. Despite the pollution, tourism is still high, with 4 million tourists visiting per year. Scuba Diving & Snorkelling are fairly popular oceanic activities for tourists, with many rental stations available. A few of the most popular beaches include Konnos Beach, Nissi Beach, Mackenzie Beach, Ayia Thekla, Aphrodite Beach, & Avdimou Bay. The sea floor around Cyprus is largely composed of sand, rock, & compressed clay. There is one interesting marine geological feature approximately 100 kilometers southwest of Cyprus, that feature being the Eratosthenes Sea Mount. The Eratosthenes Sea Mount is a 6,624-foot tall underwater sea mount off the coast of Cyprus. It is a carbonate platform. The deepest oceanic point within a 5 Nautical Mile (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) radius of Cyprus is approximately 3,300 feet (1005.84 meters) deep. The Marine Ecosystems of Cyprus Ecosystem Type No. 1: Seagrass Meadow Seagrass meadows are large patches of seagrass that oxygenate the water & provide shelter for marine organisms. These meadows are incredibly important to the oceanic ecosystem, as they provide a food source, an oxygen source, & shelter simultaneously. These areas are commonly used by fish & mollusks alike to spawn their eggs, as the seagrass provides a safe area for their hatchlings. These seagrass meadows may be composed of 1 species of seagrass, or be composed of multiple species depending on their depth. Typically, these meadows can be found from 0.25 to 190 feet (0.0762 meters to 57.912 feet) deep. The most common species of seagrass to be found around Cyprus is Posidonia oceanica, commonly known as Mediterranean Tapeweed or Neptune Grass. It is endemic to the Mediterranean. Ecosystem Type No. 2: Intertidal Zones An intertidal zone is an area of coastline that is exposed to air at low tide, & is covered with water at high tide. It is a very important location to many small marine animals, such as gastropods, crustaceans, & bivalves. Many animals will take advantage of the nutrients & microorganisms that come in with the high tide. Tide pools are a kind of rock formation located in the intertidal zone, in which water becomes trapped to form a small pool. These pools generally have species from the phyla Echinodermata & Mollusca in them. A photograph of tidepools around Cyprus. Credit to paphoslife.com. The Marine Flora of Cyprus The most common species of Seagrass found around Cyprus is Posidonia oceanica, commonly known as Mediterranean Tapeweed. A photograph of numerous fish swimming around a patch of Posidonia oceanica (Mediterranean Tapeweed / Neptune Grass). Credit to underwater photographer F. Launette. This seagrass will often grow in massive colonies, known as meadows. Usually, their colonies grow at depths of 3.3 to 114.8 feet deep. When the plant blades die, they form into balls, which are known as the “Olive of the Sea”. Their fruits are also known as Neptune balls & will often wash up along the coastline. They often plague the beaches & make for a strange sight to see. They usually don’t impede visitors, but they can. These Neptune balls are brown, & somewhat crunchy. The interesting thing about this species is that it can absorb carbon dioxide in huge droves. This species can soak up 15 more times carbon dioxide than a similar-sized piece of the Amazon Rainforest in South America. Their fruits are also important as they are dense balls of dead Neptune grass leaves, creating a structure to pick up pollution. These dense balls can trap microplastics within them & then carry these plastics to the shoreline where people can discard them safely. These species are not threatened with extinction as of 2024, & are listed as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List. Posidonia oceanica is usually bright green, however it may turn brown as it ages. It usually grows between 7.87402 inches (20.0000108 centimeters) & 15.748 inches (39.99992 centimeters) tall. It also grows usually to be 10 millimeters (0.393701 inches or 1 centimeter) wide. There are other species of seagrass, but we are unable to confirm exactly what species there are, & for that reason, we cannot provide information on them. The Marine Fauna of Cyprus Cyprus had a very biodiverse population of Marine Fauna. Although there is pollution & ocean acidification, there marine life of Cyprus is abundant. A few of the most common animals include the Mediterranean Monk Seal which is endemic to the Mediterranean, Loggerhead Turtles, Green Sea Turtles, Cuttlefish, Octopi, Various Fish, Dolphins, Mussels, Anemones, & Nudibranchs. How Ocean Acidification & Rising Oceanic Temperatures Are Affecting Cypriot Seas Ocean acidification is a phenomenon in which the pH level in the ocean decreases, causing a higher level of acidity. Oceanic Acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, & deforestation, for the past 150 years. When carbon dioxide contacts sea water, it forms carbonic acid. Carbonic acid gives off positive H+ ions, which causes increased oceanic H+ concentrations & decreased oceanic Ph. When the ocean has decreased Ph, it creates a more acidic environment, which is extremely hostile to many marine species. These conditions that will eat at the shells of bivalves, stress out & eventually bleach coral, & utterly destroy seagrass patches. Both ocean acidification & rising oceanic temperatures are negatively affecting Cyprus. Rising oceanic temperatures are certainly affecting Cyprus, with water temperatures reaching 30° Celsius in July of 2024. This is negatively affecting seagrass meadows, causing them to be stressed out & making it more difficult for new seagrass to grow. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “The Marine Environment Of Cyprus”, Written By Unknown & Published on June 9th, 2024. Published by the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development, & Environment. Retrieval Date: September 15th, 2024. https://www.moa.gov.cy/moa/dfmr/dfmr.nsf/All/6561CB64C528ECFA42257F370041F296?OpenDocument Citation No. 2: “Wetsuit thickness & temperature guide”, Written By Mark Evans, & Published On April 24th, 2023, at 3:05 PM. Published By Scuba Divers Magazine. Retrieval Date: September 17th, 2024. https://www.scubadivermag.com/wetsuit-thickness-and-temperature-guide/#Scuba_diving_wetsuits Citation No. 3: “Biology of Posidonia”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Mediterranean Posidonia Network. Retrieval Date: September 17th, 2024. https://medposidonianetwork.com/biology/ Citation No. 4: “Neptune Grass”, Written by G. Pergent, V. Gerakaris, Y.R Sghaier, R. Zakhama-Srarier, & C. Pergent-Martini, & Last Updated in 2016. Published by the International Union For The Conservation Of Nature Red List. Retrieval Date: September 17th, 2024. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/153534/135156882 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

An idyllic photograph of a sea arch in Anguilla, a British Overseas Territory. Credit to bThere Magazine. Today’s chart is an ancient 375-year-old map of the Caribbean, from Puerto Rico to Trinidad. The chart is moderately sized, at 20 inches long by 16 inches wide. It features the Caribbean Sea, & numerous Caribbean islands. It is in brilliant condition for its age, with few spots or signs of wear along the edges. In today’s article, we are going to examine this antique map, discuss it, & perform an analysis of it. With that being said, let’s delve into the idyllic, tropical waters of the Caribbean Sea! The Map Itself A 375-year-old chart of the Caribbean Sea. Credit to cartographer & hydrographer Jan Janssonius. This chart focuses on the Caribbean Sea, featuring Puerto Rico, Anguilla, Saint Martin, Saint-Barthélemy, Antigua, Guadalupe, Dominica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, & numerous other small islands. It is richly decorated, with numerous illustrations of ships, an elaborate cartouche, & an illustration of a person along with the map scale in the corner. Each ship is unique, with varying sails, flags, & colours of wooden hulls. The Paria peninsula of Venezuela has numerous mountains drawn, along with a plethora of labelled coastal settlements. An Analysis Of The Map This chart was produced in 1650 by cartographer Johannes Janssonius. Jan Jansson was an esteemed hydrographer & cartographer of the 17th century, born in 1588 in Arnhem, Gelderland, The Netherlands. During this era, the Dutch ruled the cartographic market. Born to a father who owned a publishing house, he was exposed to the art of cartography & publishing at a young age. In 1612, at the age of 24, he wed the daughter of Jodocus Hondius, entering the cartographically important Hondius family in the process. Upon marrying, he moved to Amsterdam. Janssonius published his first map in 1616, influenced heavily by cartographer Willem Blaeu. In the 1630’s, Jansson partnered with their brother-in-law Henricus Hondius, to produce the 11-volume Atlas Major. Unfortunately, he passed away in 1664, upon which his business was overtaken by his son-in-law Johannes Waesberger, & his other his son-in-law Elizée Weyerstraet. The chart is titled “Insula S. iuan De Puerto Rico Caribes uvel Canibasum Insulae”. Considering the age of the map, it was most likely manufactured using the engraving method. In this technique, there are 4 roles, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually, there would only be 1-2 plates used, however, it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where the ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Thereafter, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. The result should be a detailed chart with colour, & depth, useful to any sailor of the era traversing the high seas. A photograph of Mayaro Beach, Trinidad. Mayaro Beach is a popular beach located in Southeastern Trinidad known for its stunning natural beauty. Credit to Paul Oreggio/Getty Images. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Rare Maps, a California rare & antique maps store. To purchase this chart, antique atlases, or other cartographic objects, please visit www.raremaps.com. To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Rare Maps, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of a Harmful Algal Bloom in Lake Elsinore, California. This particular bloom was caused by cyanobacteria in August of 2022. Credit to Getty Images. California’s Pacific coast is one of the most biodiverse and abundant ecosystems worldwide teaming with almost 2000 species of microorganisms, plants, fish, marine mammals, turtles, invertebrates and sea birds supported by a Mediterranean climate. Its famous off-shore, underwater and coastal rock formations date back to the Crustaceous period and help subsidize this special bionetwork making the state’s ocean waters and sea life sacred and unique. Unfortunately, California’s precious coastal ecosystem also faces massive threats in the vein of climate change/global warming, the devastation of kelp forests, ocean acidification, algal blooms and habitat destruction; sounding the alarm for the time-sensitive need for human intervention, conservation management and awareness. The Pacific Tide series highlights monthly oceanic events occurring on the California coast and/or portrait important species who call the Pacific coastline waters home emphasizing the importance of conserving this critical ecosystem. In this month’s installment of The Pacific Tide, we unravel the defining history and effects of algal blooms exploring some notable events in both global and California’s state histories. We also reveal how algal blooms potentially harm the human food chain and what California scientists are doing to monitor and reduce the algal environments to protect sea life, public health, food chains, infrastructure and the economy. A photograph of a harmful algal bloom causing a fish (crapple, carp, bluegill, and catfish), die-off in Clear Lake, California. This bloom occurred in June 2019. Credit to the United States Geologic Survey. Dolphins, Dogs and Algae During the opening week of May 2026, the Pacific waters off the shore of San Clemente’s North Beach sparkled like sapphires to the soundtrack of gently rolling waves; as beachgoers inhaled the scent of the sea perfuming the air and left their footprints in the sand. What onlookers saw next caused shock and fear: a bottlenose dolphin only partially submerged in breaking water appearing to be under the influence of a seizure. Although the growing crowd felt helpless; Los Angeles’s Pacific Marine Mammal Center rushed to the scene but were unable to be of assistance as the dolphin had been swept back to the deeper waters of the Pacific; now swimming erratically. Human intervention was fruitless and equally heartbreaking as this was the second dolphin in distress in mere days. A photograph of a deceased dolphin washed up on shore as a result of Domoic Acid Poisoning. Credit to the Channel Islands Marine & Wildlife Institute. The charming Venice Canals (Los Angeles) boasts colorful condos, wooden bridges and small docked boats awaiting passengers to glide down its channel making the Venice Canals the ideal picturesque walk for the four-legged best friends of the neighborhood. As these pups trotted around the canals enjoying their dog day out in early 2026; later reports came in of several canines suffering from seizures, vomiting, diarrhea, liver failure and even unexplainable death; turning the Venice neighborhood upside down in alert mode. Geographically-distanced coastal neighborhoods, two distinctly varying animals: what is the Sherlock-ian clue knotting these alarming events with one string? Harmful Algae Blooms: preferably monikered to ocean scientists under the acronym, ‘HAB’. Although a world-wide oceanic occurrence; California’s coastal waterways have been cursed with dismaying HAB events especially in recent years with the 2024 and 2025 spring/summer seasons being some of the worst on historical record. In a 2026 reversal, the algae toxins are comparatively minimal allowing for some breathing room for marine rescuers and ocean conservationists - but California is not entirely out of the flagged stage. What are HABs and How Do They Impact California? Algae are the ‘trees of our oceans’ helping to photosynthesize carbon, serve as food for a significant number of sea animal species and structurally secure the marine sediment beds. Without algae; our entire oceanic ecosystems would be awry with a global land and air decompression. These superheroes of the ocean can, periodically, become the villains influenced by warming waters and offshore runoff causing algae numbers to over-multiply uncontrollably resulting in a mass disturbance. Algal blooms occur as water rich in phosphorus and nitrogen nutrients (usually entering the waterways through pollution or California’s infamous wildfires) is pushed in a circular motion upwelling speeding the growth of Pseudo-nitzschia: a single-celled alga. Pseudo-nitzschia produces a by-product of the neurotoxin, domoic acid. When the conditions are idyllic for a HAB to take place, then the entire oceanic ecosystem and food chains are violated by an overabundance of the uninvited domoic acid party guest. A photograph of seabirds flying over San Francisco Bay in the midst of a harmful algal bloom. Credit to Justin Sullivan / Getty Images. Acting as the superfood of plankton, sardines, fish and shellfish; algae is in turn consumed by the mammals of the sea: pinnipeds like seals and sea lions, dolphins, whales and sharks. The toxic domoic acid hijacks the host animal’s spinal fluid causing brain damage and eventual death. In the spring HAB event of 2025, Southern California’s multiple marine wildlife rehabilitation facilities received up to 100 calls a day regarding domoic acid-affected animals taxing out their physical space and financial grants rushing to save those dying. HAB events are not only the seasonal killers of ocean life; but actively cost the US economy millions yearly in marine waterway infrastructure damage, income loss, and even tourism and recreational dents. Although climate change warming the waters of our oceans is one of the primary causes of HAB events; algal blooms are not a modern-day phenomenon dating back to as far as 2.5 billion years when blooms blanketed the fledgling earth’s surface waters causing ‘The Great Oxidation Event’ which, quite literally, made life possible with the introduction of prosperousamounts of oxygen. During the Devonian Period (419-358 million years ago), the loosening roots of trees and plants triggered the unhinging of boulders and rocks thus releasingnutrients into the water systems causing an algae bloom that devoid the oceans of so much oxygen that most marine mammals became extinct. The famous Chicxulub asteroid extinction of dinosaurs recited by school children worldwide;also resulted in seven notorious HAB events only recently confirmed by scientists running simulations of ocean productivity before and after the asteroid impact. The asteroid’s blocking of sunlight and monstrous release of dust dramatically cooled the seas causing the upwelling of nutrient-dense water which is the homeostatic condition ideal for a HAB event. Turn back 47 million years when modern-day Germany experienced a HAB event that was the genocide of horses, bats and birds. Subsequent notable devastating HAB events occurred 2.6 million years ago in the Gulf of Florida, 1000 B.C. in Egypt, 1606 and 1774 respectively in Vanuatu, Spain, 1793 in British Columbia, Canada, 1799 in Alaska and 1844 in Florida. California is no stranger to historic HAB events with 1927 seeing the San Fransico Bay area tragically reporting six human fatalities and several hundred more becoming sick afterconsuming shellfish high in domoic acid. A flock of Pelicans huddled around at the Wetlands & Wildlife Care Center in Huntington Beach. The 1963 film The Birds, by Alfred Hitchcock, was partially inspired by a 1961 incident in which birds affected by Domoic Acid Poisoning attacked homes & vehicles in Capitola, California. Credit to Newt Likier / Wetlands and Wildlife Care Center. Fans of the horror-king Alfred Hitchock might be surprised to learn that his inspiration for the classic film, “The Birds”, was that of a Monterey Bay, California disturbance in 1961 with thousands of birds acting erratically and dying in mass numbers which has since been verified to be the result of a Pseudo-nitzschia bloom. HAB events in California are now larger in spread scope, last longer in duration and travel to more waterways than ever before. Marine or land animal species consuming seafood from algae-infected waters are principally those to succumb to the evil end-game of HAB events but humans can also experience symptoms such as nausea, diarrhea, lung infections, eye irritation, vomiting and seizures from swimming in bloom-infected waters or engaging in water sport recreations. Although rarer, humans can become afflicted with Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) from consuming mussels, clams, scallops and oysters high in domoic acid seeing memory loss, headaches and even death. Golden Mussels in the Golden State: The Hidden Side of Algal Blooms Effecting Consumers and the Food Chain HAB events are the deadly nemesis to California’s marine life but they are also the evil foe to the state’s agriculture, infrastructure, drinking water and even the Californian end consumers of the food chain. To understand this negative feedback loop of algae blooms we must rewind to the fundamental building blocks. When a HAB proliferates, Pseudo-nitzschia concentrates the vicious domoic acid which infiltrates the consumers of this alga like sardines, anchovies and filter-feeding bivalves: the group of mollusks comprising of mussels, clams, oysters and scallops. When these animals are eaten by lobsters and crabs; suddenly California’s food supply is restricted: fisheries close, jobs are paused at seafood processing plants and the public consuming these animals as food are at risk of domoic acid intoxication that can inevitably lead to severe health complications and even death. The biggest threat to the human food chain are the bivalves which causes the State of California Department of Public Health to yearly suspend the consumption of sport-caught California coastal mollusks between May 1 – October 31 in order to prevent an outbreak of Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) or Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP). Commercially-caught bivalves are rigorously tested and considered to be much safer to public health but still meant to proceed with caution. Mollusks strategically consume plankton releasing nutrients into the water making algae thrive; while also over-filtering compounds that allow excess sunlight to bloom the algae in addition to imbibing on their own dose of domoic acid. This evil acid accumulates in the innards of these animals which unless removed before eaten; has disastrous results. California is being attacked from both sides during HAB events as the state is currently under a State of Emergency declaration due to the infestation of Golden Mussels: a highly invasive filter-feeding mussel species native to Asia with a massively-rapid expansion rate currently causing devastation to California’s waterway infrastructure by clogging pipework and tanks, damaging structures, constricting drinking water flow capabilities, disturbing water-suppression systems which are critical for California’s wildfire response, damaging water integrity, shrinking California’s native fish populations and terrifyingly: speeding the growth of algae blooms. A photograph of a colony of Golden Mussels (Limnoperna fortunei) recently discovered in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Credit to the California Department of Fish & Wildlife. These Golden Mussels are impenetrable appearing to be able to withstand a nuclear apocalypse with California’s engineers, water experts, scientists and biologists working around the clock to find a solution of complex Golden Mussel management or annihilation. Golden Mussels have already wreaked havoc in Northern California damaging a $100 million floodgate in Kern County, damaging Santa Clara water treatment facilities and a raw water processor in Santa Teresa. “This is no longer a theoretical concern or something happening elsewhere. The infestation is here”, confirms Thomas Brown, Kern County Intergovernmental Affairs Officer. Experts recommend visiting the California Department of Public Health website for up-to-date information regarding domoic acid contaminated seafood/algae bloom maps before consumption. (https://wildlife.ca.gov/fishing/ocean/health-advisories) California Moving Forward and Monitoring HAB Events California fundamentally focuses on providing both public and private sectors with real-time HAB updates and offers a host of key resources to combat risks to oceanic or human lives. Implemented in early 2025, the United Nations began collaboratively working with California using satellite data and images to highlight water upwelling and movement, the presence of algae, temperature changes, and miscellaneous anomalies to help warn of incoming HAB events. Environmental scientists in the San Francisco Bay area along with the US Geological Survey California Water Science Center partner to analyze water data including water movement, temperature and microbial life in agal communities helping to slow spread. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) also works hand-in-hand with California state authorities providing the use of satellites and ocean sensors hoping to mitigate the growth of devastating blooms. The State of California Water Control Monitoring Council provides the public with an easy-to-use incident reporting info-graphic map that showcases any threats, warnings, cautions, bloom confirmations, sightings and alerts (https://mywaterquality.ca.gov/habs/resources/reports-map/). These agencies working together are a critical asset to the wellbeing of California’s marine life and public health. Although scientifically impossible to completely eradicate HAB events; California state officials are using innovative methods to help manage blooms preventing them from causing chaos to the state’s sea life, economy, public health and food chain. California implements approved algaecide that significantly reduces the coverage of blooms; while also introducing clay sprays to the surface of water. These sprays bind with algae sinking to the sea bed and neutralizing them. The clay method can be observed by the pilot program at Clear Lake in Northern California where phosphorus, one of the key nutrients of blooms, is removed and force-fed into the sediment layer. Experts via the state’s Regional Water Boards also increasingly focus on altering oceanic environmental conditions by extinguishing the access of oxygen that feeds blooms and enforcing “maximum daily load” numbers capping the nutrient amounts that can be flushed into the waterways. Even droids are entering the HAB fight with Imaging-Flow Cytobots created by the Ocean Protection Council, transmitting underwater microbial data in real time. These combined efforts will profoundly ensure that California’s marine life, public health and economy remain preserved. If encountering an animal suspected of being intoxicated by domoic acid, remain at least 50 feet in distance and immediately call any of the following agencies: NOAA West Coast Marine Mammal Stranding Network at 1-866-767-6114 Channel Island Marine & Wildlife Institute at (805) 567-1506 California Wildlife Center at (310) 458 - 9453 Pacific Marine Mammal Center at (949) 494-3050 Marine Mammal Care Center Los Angeles at (424) 450-0570 Directories / Credits 1: “Dead Dolphin and Distressing Video Raise Concern in Orange County”, Written by Lilly Dallow. Published on May 7, 2026 by KTLA 5​Los Angeles. https://ktla.com/news/orange-county/dead-dolphin-and-distressing-video-raise-concern-in-orange-county/ 2: “Navigating the 2026 Toxic Algae Venice Canals Crisis: Protecting Your Dog on the Westside”, Written by Arnold Lopez on February 25, 2026 by Puparazzi Pet Resort and Spa. https://puparazzila.com/blog/2026-venice-canals-toxic-algae-bloom-dog-safety/ 3: “Algal Blooms”, Written by Gary Pitzer. Published on Unknown Date by California Department of Water Resources. https://water.ca.gov/What-We-Do/Recreation/Algal-Blooms 4: “Harmful Algal Blooms”, Written by Uknown Author. Published on Unknown Date by Tracking California. https://trackingcalifornia.org/topics/habs#gsc.tab=0 5: “Understanding Harmful Algal Blooms in California”, Written by San Diego Coastkeeper. Published on June 10, 2025 by San Diego Coastkeeper. https://www.sdcoastkeeper.org/blog/understanding-harmful-algal-blooms-in-california/ 6: “Asteroid Impact in Earth’s Past Caused Brief Bloom of Algae and Substantial Ocean Species’ Extinction”, Written by Unknown Author. Published on June 17, 2021 by Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en/news/latest-news/asteroid-impact-in-earth2019s-past-caused-brief-bloom-of-algae-and-substantial-ocean-species2019-extinction 7: “Historical Occurrence of HABs”, Written by Unknown Author. Published on Unknown Date by U.S. National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms. https://hab.whoi.edu/about/historical-occurrence-of-habs/ 8: “'The Infestation is Here': Another California County Declares Emergency Over Species”, Written by Gillian Mohney. Published on May 14, 2026 by San Franscico Gate. https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/bay-area-invasive-species-22259030.php 9: “Harmful Algal Blooms and Wild-Caught Seafood in California”, Written by Carolynn Culver, Carrie Pomeroy, Joe Tyburczy, Theresa Talley, Katherine Leitzell, Tatiana Raskin, Fernanda Pett, Junnichi Mijares, Danielle Punsal, Jae Shim and Sarah Amiri. Published on January 22, 2019 by Sea Grant California. https://caseagrant.ucsd.edu/california-commercial-fisheries/harmful-algal-blooms-and-wild-caught-seafood-california 10: “California as Ground Zero for North America’s Golden Mussel Invasion: What to Know About the Mussel that has Already Triggered a State of Emergency in San Joaquin County”, Written by Lane Klansek. Published on May 4, 2026 by GEI Consultants. https://www.geiconsultants.com/thought_leadership/golden-mussel-invasion/ 11: “Hitting Us Where it Hurts: The Untold Story of Harmful Algal Blooms”, Written by Uknown Author. Published on September 25, 2024 by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/science-data/hitting-us-where-it-hurts-untold-story-harmful-algal-blooms 12: “Behind the Data: Observing California’s Toxic Algae from Space”, Written by Unknown Author. Published on February 24, 2026 by Eumetsat. https://www.eumetsat.int/features/behind-data-observing-californias-toxic-algae-space 13: “Heterosigma Akashiwo San Francisco Bay”, Written by California Water Science Center. Published on February 4, 2026 by United States Geological Survey. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/california-water-science-center/news/heterosigma-akashiwo-san-fracisco-bay Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Three J’s Kitchen Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A gorgeous photograph of a European Common Cuttlefish. Credit to the Tennessee Aquarium. This month’s article series is going to be about the beautiful isle of Cyprus, located in the Mediterranean Sea. Cyprus is a small Island Country in the Mediterranean Sea, off the coast of Turkey. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the third most populous island in the Mediterranean Sea. The isle is approximately 37.22 nautical miles (42.832011 miles or 68.93144 kilometers) from the mainland country of Turkey on Asia Minor. Additionally, is approximately 149 miles long from east to west, & 62 miles from north to south at its widest point. Cyprus has been settled by various groups of people, since at least the Bronze Age approximately 13,000 to 12,000 years ago, giving time for its incredibly interesting & unique culture to develop. The isle is very well known for its rich culture & history, arts, & folk music. A strong part of the local culture is hospitality. Guests & visitors are almost always offered small amounts of food as a sign of appreciation, & are often served with a special kind of silver fork known as the protsoues. Cyprus contains a unique ecoregion known as the Cyprus Mediterranean Forests, known for its endemic species, temperate climate, & vast sprawling landscapes. Approximately 128 plants are endemic to these forests, as well as a sub-species of sheep. The island isn’t only diverse in its terrestrial landscapes, & is also highly diverse in its marine landscapes. This is shown in their beautiful sea caves, rocky shorelines, & seagrass meadows. One of the interesting species that inhabits these meadows, is the European Common Cuttlefish. The European Common Cuttlefish is a species of cuttlefish found all across Europe & the Atlantic Ocean. They are one of the largest & most well-known cuttlefish species on Earth. They are known for being highly migrational, & living on beds of sand or mud-beds. During the day, they will bury themselves in this substrate & remain inactive until evening, when they become lively & vivacious predators. Cuttlefish are incredibly important to Mediterranean Cuisine, & are prized for their ink. Their ink is used to dye pasta, as well as pasta sauce, black. Consuming this pasta is believed to have health benefits such as being anti-inflammatory, & anti-oxidant. In this article, we will delve into the discovery & life of the European Cuttlefish, the mating strategies of the European Cuttlefish, the distribution of the European Cuttlefish, & the scientific details of the European Cuttlefish. With that being said, let us delve into these beautiful cephalopods. The Discovery & Life Of The European Common Cuttlefish European Cuttlefish have been present throughout Mediterranean culture for hundreds of years, & were officially described in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish taxonomist, naturalist, biologist, & zoologist. The largest common cuttlefish will reach 19.2913 inches (49 centimeters) long, however, the average size is a mere 9.84252 inches (25 centimeters). As far as cuttlefish are, they are quite heavy, having an average weight of 6.61387 pounds (3 kilograms). Cephalopods in general have very short lifespans, with the common cuttlefish being no exception, with a lifespan of one to two years. Cuttlefish are known for being amongst the smartest marine animals, with an almost unrivaled intellect. Though they are not as intelligent as octopuses, they are extremely capable creatures. In captivity, individuals can recognize caretakers, & exhibit self-restraint for a delayed reward. Throughout multiple studies, it has been shown that they have a level of reasoning, & the ability count. Overall, they are some of the most intelligent marine animals. Cuttlefish as a group have existed for approximately 23 million years, having evolved in the Miocene. In the wild, cuttlefish are rather shy, & avoid interaction with humans. While they aren’t aggressive to humans, they are incredibly aggressive towards each other & their prey. They are known for being vivacious & lively hunters towards smaller animals, & each other. Individuals are very territorial, fighting other cuttlefish violently if they encroach. However, they won’t always fight by physically attacking each other. Often, they will choose to show aggressive patterns on their skin instead. Apart from mating, common cuttlefish spend the majority of their lives in solitude. Cuttlefish swim through a method called undulatory swimming, popular amongst fish. They do this by oscillating their fins to move themselves forward. Individuals have a maximum speed of 2.5 meters per second. Their buoyancy is controlled through an interesting body part known as the cuttlebone. The cuttlebone is an inner shell made up of various chambers that a cuttlefish will pump air & water into to control its buoyancy. If a cuttlefish wishes to move up or down in the water column, it will pump air or water into its cuttlebone accordingly. The way that a cuttlefish sleeps is not the same way that humans sleep, in that cuttlefish don’t turn off their entire brains & sleep for long blocks of time. At the risk of being consumed, they cannot sleep for long periods. They have 3 different stages of sleep, those being REM Sleep, quiescent sleep, & active sleep. They will sleep for between three to 4 minutes while in REM sleep. Even while sleeping, their brains are still partially active, & guarded. The average diet of a common cuttlefish consists of small crustaceans, bivalves, shellfish, worms, small octopuses, fish, & occasionally each other. They are known to be cannibalistic, however, that is usually out of stress. They are nocturnal, & primarily hunt during the night, dawn, & dusk. Individuals locate food through a combination of odor, sight, & feel. By nature, they are ambush predators, meaning they hide & wait for prey in the sand instead of actively pursuing them. Once they feel an animal swim over them, they will reach their large arms out, grab the animal, pull it towards their mouth, & tear its flesh with its beak, & then consume the animal. Cuttlefish are preyed upon by many different animals such as seals, birds, fish, dolphins, & sharks. The appearance of a cuttlefish is vastly different depending on the environment, & the mood the cuttlefish is in. The patterns on their skin are ever-changing, & rarely stay the same for extended periods. Generally, they have large eyes, 2 long tentacles with 8 smaller arms, fins running down the length of their body, & are stalky. Thankfully as of 2026, the Common Cuttlefish is listed as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List. The Mating Habits, Practices, Procedures, Techniques, Tactics, & Strategies Of The European Common Cuttlefish Common cuttlefish breed via sexual reproduction. They have 2 distinct sexes, & are not naturally hermaphroditic. This breeding system is polygynous, as male cuttlefish will take multiple partners in a lifetime, while females will often only take one. Female cuttlefish will take very few partners, & shortly after breeding, will lay their first clutch of eggs. Individuals mature very quickly at ages as young as 6 months. They do have a particular breeding season, that being spring. After maturing, they will wait until breeding season, when females will begin looking for a mate, & males will begin putting on extravagant shows. Male cuttlefish have this ritual of putting on an extravagant display using their skin to create patterns, & beckoning to females. When a female finds a male she deems suitable, the 2 will promptly copulate. Upon copulation, the male will have no role in the child’s life, & the females will often not breed again. The mother will gestate her young, before laying them in large clumps in shallow ocean water. The eggs will sit for 1 to 2 months before hatching into baby cuttlefish. Unlike octopuses, the mother will not guard her children, instead letting them fend for themselves. Soon after laying her eggs, the mother will pass away. The Distribution Of The European Common Cuttlefish Common Cuttlefish are found all across Europe, & the Atlantic Ocean. They may be found as far as the North Sea down to South Africa. They tend to prefer sandy ocean floors or flat mud beds, as they enjoy burying themselves during the daytime. They prefer shallower waters, & live from the coastline to the end continental shelf. Individuals are highly migrational, & will not stay in the same area for their whole lives. The deepest a common cuttlefish has ever been observed was 200 meters deep. The Scientific Details Of The European Common Cuttlefish Cuttlefish are most well known for their skin, which can create interesting patterns of color. They can do this through a set of small organs across their skin that controls ink sacs, allowing them to change their skin whenever they’d like. These organs are known as Chromatophores, & layered with 2 other organs known as Iridophores & Leucophores, which refract colored light & white light from the skin of the cuttlefish. Cuttlefish have a total of 3 hearts much like octopuses or squid. They have 2 branchial hearts which pump blood to their gills. At this point, the blood will take in oxygen & be sent off to the systemic heart. After this, the systemic heart will pump the blood all over the body. Their blood is also blue instead of red. The reason for this is due to a copper-rich protein known as Hemocyanin existing in their blood. The existence of this protein in their blood causes their blood to be blue. This is very similar to the iron in Hemoglobin in human blood. This blue blood exists in all cephalopods. If used properly, this blood can be used as a pigment or a dye. Cuttlefish are invertebrates, & do not have any hard areas apart from their cuttlebone & beak. Similar to humans, Cuttlefish have to worry about Parasites invading their bodies. The most common kinds of parasites are Dicyemids, & Nematodes. Their phylum is known as Mollusca. Mollusca is the 2nd largest phylum, just behind Arthopoda. Mollusca is however the largest marine phylum as it comprises approximately 23% of all documented marine species. The three most commonly found features defining modern species categorized under mollusks are the following: a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing & excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Their class is Cephalopoda. This class includes almost all species of cuttlefish, octopi, squid, & nautilus. Their order is Sepiida, which is the order of all Cuttlefish. All cuttlefish have an inner shell, known as a cuttlebone, which is used to control buoyancy. Their family is Sepiidae, which is one of the largest families of cuttlefish. Their genus is Sepia. This genus contains some of the most well-known Cuttlefish. This genus encompasses cuttlefish with an ellipsoid shape. Their binomial name is Sepia officinalis. A gorgeous pair of European Common Cuttlefish swimming near the bottom of the sea. Credit to underwater photographer David Nicholson. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Common Cuttlefish: Sepia Officinalis”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Monterey Bay Aquarium. Retrieval Date: August 30th, 2024. https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/animals/animals-a-to-z/common-cuttlefish Citation No. 2: “Common Cuttlefish”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by The Wildlife Trusts. Retrieval Date: August 30th, 2024. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/marine/squids-octopuses-and-cuttlefish/common-cuttlefish Citation No. 3: “Common Cuttlefish (Sepia)”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Dimensions. Retrieval Date: August 30th, 2024. https://www.dimensions.com/element/common-cuttlefish-sepia-officinalis Citation No. 4: “Common Cuttlefish”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Animalia. Retrieval Date: August 30th, 2024. https://animalia.bio/common-cuttlefish Citation No. 5: “Embracing Their Prey At The Dark Hour: Common Cuttlefish (Sepia Officinalis) Can Hunt In Nighttime Light Conditions”, Written by Melanie Brauckoff, Magnus Wahlberg, Jens Ådne Rekkedel Haga, Maria Wilson, & Hans Erik Karlsen, & Published on June 10th, 2020. Published by Frontiers. Retrieval Date: August 31st, 2024. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2020.00525/full Citation No. 6: “Sepia Officinalis”, Written By Unknown, & Last Updated on March 29th, 2009. Published by the International Union For The Conservation Of Nature Red List. Retrieval Date: August 31st, 2024. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/162664/939991 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Pitfire Artisan Pizza Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Recently, our head writer was fortunate enough to sit down for an interview with Environmental Activist & Chair of Surf Rider-Chicago, Devin McAllester! Devin McAllester is an Environmental Activist & Chair of Surf Rider-Chicago known for his work with the Surf Rider Foundation. In today’s interview, we sit down with Devin to discuss his career, his passion for the Great Lakes, the beaches surrounding Chicago, the Surf Rider Foundation, & the programs of Surf Rider-Chicago in a comprehensive 17-question interview. Before delving into today’s interview, please note everything said has been edited for clarity, & that the opinions of our interviewee do not necessarily reflect the opinions & values of our organization. With that being said, let us delve into the contents of the interview! The Contents of The Interview Questions About His Passion: 1. What sparked your passion for the ocean & marine science? I’ve always liked the water. I grew up playing on the beach, going kayaking, & playing in the waves. I grew up mostly in the Chicago Area. I liked to surf on Lake Michigan. I moved away for a long time, then I came back about 3 years ago & got back into surfing. I’ve gotten more involved in environmental advocacy, which eventually led to my current position at Surf Rider. 2. What sparked your passion for surfing? It’s the right mix of being outside, it’s exciting, & there’s an art to it that I like. It’s not something you can instantly pick up, you’re always honing your skills. The feeling of sliding down a wave is something else, it’s next level. It’s a beautiful sport. 3. Was there any particular person, place, moment, or piece of media that assisted in sparking your passion? If we’re talking about environmental advocacy & community organizing, I moved back to the Chicago area in 2023. In 2024, a beach near where I live that used to be free started charging people to get on the beach. You used to be able to just walk onto the beach, swimming wasn’t allowed, but it was totally free & open to the public. If you didn’t live in that village, you had to pay $10 per person to get on the sand. I felt that was deeply unfair. Because I was a surfer, & Surf Rider works on beach access, Surf Rider seemed like the kind of organization that might help work on that. I started working on trying to make that beach free again. I started attending Surf Rider events, which is sort of what kicked off my path to where I currently am in terms of environmental advocacy & community organizing. 4. What is your favourite terrestrial, or marine animal? I’m going with morning doves (Zenaida macroura). In my backyard, there are all sorts of birds. We have a little koi pond, & they like to come to take a bath. Morning doves always seem so relaxed & calm. They’re very sort of docile & humble birds. They’re not very showy. Other birds are kind of jerks, like the grackles, & the blackbirds. They enjoy attacking other birds. Morning doves have got this nice kind of call. They are very chill, friendly birds. They’re my favourite animal. A photograph of a pair of morning doves (Zenaida macroura) perched on a branch. Credit to Kevin M. McCarthy. Questions About His Work: 5. How would you describe the Surf Rider Foundation to someone who isn’t familiar? We’re an environmental nonprofit that weds wave, wind, & human powered sports with environmental activism. We work on beach access, & helping people access the water. We have fun events such as learn-to-surf days, & paddle out surfing competitions. We also work really hard on clean water. Whether that’s fighting industrial pollution, fighting plastic pollution, or working with restaurants to reduce single-use plastics. It’s an environmental nonprofit with a fun side. A photograph of the official Surf-Rider Foundation Logo. Credit to the Surf Rider Foundation. 6. How did you join Surf Rider-Chicago, & what is your current position with them? I started going to Surf Rider events in 2024 when working on the beach access issue in Wilmette, Illinois. I attended a few events in the summer, then in the following January (2025), they needed some help. The local chapter needed some help with the website & the email system, so I started doing that. I became their communications coordinator. Then, in January of this past year, we had elections, & I became their chair. I am now the chair of the Chicago chapter. 7. What are your responsibilities in your capacity as Chair? I lead our executive committee, so we have a whole leadership team. Everyone has different roles. We have our social media coordinator Milo who manages our Instagram & Facebook content. We’ve got Ted, who’s our volunteer coordinator. He does a lot of our event planning. We’ve got Quinten, our vice chair, Quentin’s helping with our water testing program. I help coordinate the efforts of all of our leadership team. I also serve as a spokesman for the chapter. If ABC wanted to do a piece on our beach cleanups, for instance, then I would help coordinate that, & might do some interviews. I help with direction. Obviously, we would decide on that as a team, but, I kind of steer that process. I manage those sorts of big things of coordinating & managing our campaigns & programs, making sure everything’s running smoothly. All that good stuff. 8. How would you describe your Great Lakes Friendly Restaurant program? The idea is essentially that a lot of single-use plastics come from dining. Imagine if you’re going & getting takeout. There’s a plastic foam takeout container, they toss some plastic silverware, there are little plastic ramekins, & oftentimes there’s a plastic bag. The idea is to collaborate with restaurants to both recognize restaurants that have eliminated single-use plastics, but just as importantly to help restaurants reduce those single-use plastics. There are incentives for restaurants, we offer discounts on restaurant supplies. If you wanted to buy stainless steel ramekins, or paper straws, if you were a participating restaurant, you would get discounts. It’s collaborative! We also try to promote them on our social media accounts, like our Instagram & our website. They get a sticker decal that they put on the front of their restaurant. We also have a dashboard on our website where you can see Great Lakes Friendly restaurants. Let’s say I was visiting San Diego, & I wanted to grab lunch. I could go on Surfrider’s website, find an Ocean Friendly restaurant, then choose that as where I get lunch so that I’m supporting a restaurant that’s working on reducing plastic. 9. How would you describe your Blue Water Task Force Program? The idea behind the Blue Water Task Force is that water testing at public swimming beaches usually has gaps. One gap could be seasonal, which is the gap we have in Chicago. They test in the summer, fall comes, the district stops testing, but people are still going in the water. The idea behind the Blue Water Task Force is to fill those gaps in water quality testing at public beaches. In Chicago, we’re trying to start up the program & Quinten’s leading the effort. We plan to focus on a few beaches in the off-season during fall & spring. There are a lot of people, especially in the fall when the water is warm, who are still going into the water. Water quality in Chicago varies wildly day to day. If we hadn’t had a lot of rain for a long time, the water quality could be good. You can have that sort of nice crystal clear blue water. If we get a lot of rain, it can get kind of murky, & it can be a little hard to tell whether or not the water is safe in terms of bacterial levels. Our goal is to test at three beaches in the fall & spring once per week. That information will be available to the public through our website. 10. How would you describe your Beach Cleanup program, & how often do you conduct beach cleanups? We conduct half a dozen to a dozen beach cleanups per year, mostly in the summer, but also in the spring & fall. The goal of the beach cleanups is threefold. Obviously, when you clean a beach, you’re taking all of this mostly plastic garbage off the beach, so you’re making it prettier. You’re reducing plastic pollution as well, & you’re preventing it from breaking down into those nasty microplastics & contaminating the water. That’s definitely an aspect. I think another important aspect is educating the public. If someone attends a beach cleanup they go down to the beach, they fill a bucket with a whole bunch of broken up plastic, & they get to see firsthand how bad the single-use plastic pollution problem is in sort of a visceral way that’s going to stick with them a lot more than some statistic. The third prong of our beach cleanup program is collecting data from all chapters across the country. Surf Rider has about 200 chapters & clubs. Then we aggregate that data, & it’s available on our website. It helps us communicate to policymakers the scale of the issue. To say we found X pounds of foam takeout containers on beaches this year helps us communicate to a policymaker that foam takeout containers are a serious problem. 11. Type 6 Plastic, PS (Polystyrene) commonly known as styrofoam, is one of the most destructive types of plastic due to its tendency to fragment. Surf Rider-Chicago is currently working to ban the sale of foam food service containers in the state of Illinois. Do you mind guiding us through your “Ban The Foam, Save The Shore” program? There’s currently a bill that’s being considered at the state level to ban polystyrene foam food service containers. That bill was brought to life by a broad coalition of environmental groups. Foam breaks down easily, & it sort of breaks into smaller, & smaller pieces without ever going away. That’s a pretty big problem, especially when you’re thinking about water. A foam container that ends up in the lake won’t biodegrade like a paper container. Instead, you end up with all these microplastics that end up in our water supply. They end up in the fish & the birds. We’re very hopeful that the state of Illinois will pass that bill, & that foam food service containers will become a thing of the past. A photograph of a classic 9-inch polystyrene foam food service container. Credit to HorizonMart. 11. What does your schedule look like week-to-week or day-to-day? I’m a volunteer, you have to set some sort of boundaries. You can’t spend your whole life on this, as much as perhaps I’d like to. I think that we have a lot going on. We have beach access issues, industrial pollution, water testing, & beach cleanups that need our attention, plus administration work. I think the biggest challenge for me is being able to focus my time on a particular issue & give it the attention that it needs. It’s easy to say “I’m going to spend 15 hours on Surf Rider this week!”, then you spend an hour here, an hour there, & it all sort of trickles away. I’m fairly new to being chair, I’ve been chair for less than 6 months. I’m still figuring out things in terms of my day-to-day schedule, I slide in Surf Rider where I can, when I can, when it’s needed. I do my best to give all of our various programs & campaigns my attention. 12. If someone were interested in volunteering with Surf Rider-Chicago, how would they approach you all? We have a calendar of events on our website. A great first step is to attend one of our beach cleanups or attend one of our fun events. We have learn-to-surf days, sea glass collection days, & rock collection days. Any of those are great opportunities to get involved. On our website, there is a volunteer interest form, where you can give us your contact information. If you’re interested in volunteering on the beach access issues, or if you’re interested in working on clean water issues, you can fill out that form & we’ll get back to you with ways you can help us out. 13. What are your plans as Chair for the chapter in the coming years? (2026, & 2027) We want to grow. Surf Rider-Chicago is a place for anyone who loves the lake. I think that we are not reaching the full breadth of engaging lake lovers that we could. All sorts of groups love the lake. There are kayakers, paddle-boarders, scuba divers, & snorkelers. One big goal of mine is to bring all those groups together so that we can collectively accomplish more in terms of environmental protection. I see Chicago as a beach city, just like Los Angeles. I think that it hasn’t fully realized its beach city potential. One of my big goals is helping more & more people get out there to enjoy the water. 14. What has been your biggest triumph or proudest moment across your career? I’ve only been Chair for about 6 months, I was on the executive committee for about a year before that as the communications coordinator. I feel that I & the chapter are in this position where we are building steam & heading towards our goals, but we haven’t fully realized them. I’m still super proud of everything that we’ve done. We organized a learn-to-surf day with a group called Latino Outdoors. Latino Outdoors is a nonprofit that helps the Latino Community get outside & enjoy the great outdoors. Latino Outdoors-Chicago is led by a wonderful organizer, Vicky, & we collaborated with her to host a learn-to-surf day. There were 17 participants, 12 volunteer surf instructors, & no waves at all! But, everyone had a blast. It turns out you don’t actually need waves to start to learn to surf. You can have people practice standing up on the beach, & they can practice paddling in the water. I think people had a great time, & it’s awesome to see people try surfing for the first time, dip their toes in the water, get excited about it, & watch their connection with the lake grow. 15. I’m sure that you have faced just as many challenges & setbacks as you have leaps forward, what has been the biggest hurdle or challenge that you have faced across your career, & how did you overcome it? I think the biggest challenge for anyone working in environmental protection or beach access is feeling as if there’s nothing that can be done. Hopelessness is the biggest challenge. I guess I have overcome by believing that a positive difference can be made, & that we can do something. It doesn’t have to be this way. It doesn’t have to be the case that people are charged $25 to get on the beach. It doesn’t have to be the case that our water is filled with plastic garbage. We can do something about it, we will do something about it, & there will come a day when it’s not the case. 16. What is your advice to new ocean conservationists, aspiring ocean professionals, & passionate young people looking to make a positive impact on the sea? Just start working at it, & don’t give up! 17. Do you have any final words about marine science, the Surf Rider Foundation, the beauty of the sea, or ocean conservation? If you live near the water, you should go to the beach. Enjoy the day. Work hard to protect it, but also enjoy it. Directories / Credits https://chicago.surfrider.org/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Olivenbaum Music Three J’s Kitchen Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa