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The Harbour Porpoise Of Ostend Beach, Belgium (Phocena Phocena) This month's article series will discuss... Ostend Beach, Belgium! Ostend Beach is in the northern area of Belgium. It is touching the southern area of the North Sea. It is on the mainland & is not an island. Ostend Beach is specifically part of the town known as Ostend. For the historical part of this month’s series, the history of the town will be studied instead of the beach itself. Ostend is approximately 61.66 miles from (70.957061 miles or 114.19432 kilometers) from the island of Great Britain. The actual name of the city is Oostende. This translates from German into English as “East End”. This is a bit confusing as Ostend Beach is in the northeastern area of Belgium. The German-speaking population of Belgium is in the western area, not the area where Ostend Beach is. This leads many to wonder how the town was named. Ostend has many different types of marine mammals in particular. This is because most marine mammals usually have large amounts of fat to insulate them from the cold waters of the North Sea. One of the more interesting of these species is known as the Harbour Porpoise. They are not endemic to Belgium, but they are found in extremely high quantities around Belgium. Harbour Porpoises are Cetaceans meaning they are extremely closely related to whales, & dolphins. They are the lesser-known of those 3. They look very similar to dolphins so they are often mistaken for being dolphins. However some defining characteristics of porpoises are that they are much smaller, they have a smaller proportioned beak, & they have less curved dorsal fins. The Harbour porpoises specifically are the most common type of porpoise that is found, many other types of endemic porpoises will be discussed in later articles. There are no known abnormalities in the Ostendian or Belgian population of harbor porpoises. They are large contributors to the ecosystems as they make sure that certain populations of fish & squid do not overpopulate in the area. They also help balance the food chain by just existing. In this article, we will discuss the life of the Harbour porpoise, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the harbor porpoise, the distribution of the Harbour porpoise, & finally the scientific detailings of the Harbour porpoise. With that being said, let us delve into the life of the puffing pig. The Life Of The Harbour Porpoise The Harbour porpoise was discovered in the year 1758 by Carl Linnaeus. The circumstances in which it was discovered are unclear. The maximum length of a harbor porpoise is approximately 6 feet (1.8288 meters) long. The females tend to be larger than the males by small amounts. Their maximum weight is approximately 200 pounds (90.7185 kilograms). The average life span of the Harbour porpoise is approximately 9 years. This does not vary based on gender. Porpoises are incredibly intelligent, as dolphins are as well. They have large & complex brains respective to other marine creatures. They are capable of recognizing themselves when shown other porpoises. This would imply that they have a sense of identity & that they have a high level of self-awareness. They are able to recognize humans as well. They are able to also hold grudges against humans, meaning if you wrong a porpoise this porpoise may show aggression towards you in the future. However, they are also able to show affection & love towards certain humans. The porpoise as the creature that we know has existed for approximately 50 million years. They can also occasionally be aggressive towards each other for mates or food. Porpoises are fairly social creatures, as they live in pods or groups. Some populations may migrate, but they usually have 1 specific territory. This means that they are most likely territorial. Porpoises can swim as fast as 34 miles per hour (54.7177 kilometers per hour), however, this is only for the adult Porpoises. Porpoises generally sleep with 1 eye open in order to keep their brain half on. They will usually sleep along the surface however sometimes they will choose to sleep in shallow areas & then come back as needed. Porpoises' diets mostly consist of fish & squid. Porpoises do not have specific hunting hours, they will hunt at all hours. Their metabolism is relatively high compared to a dolphin. Porpoises generally eat approximately 10% of their body weight every single day. They are not cannibalistic in any capacity whatsoever. Harbour porpoises have a small, robust body along with a short, blunt beak. They also possess a medium-sized triangular dorsal fin. Their back is dark gray fading to lighter intermediate shades of gray on their sides. Their belly & throat are white, with a dark gray chin patch. The Mating Tactics, Procedures, Practices, & Cycles Of The Harbour Porpoise Harbor porpoises mate via sexual reproduction. This species species of porpoise is not monogamous. Both genders of porpoises reach sexual maturity at approximately 3-4 years old. They are not hermaphroditic in any capacity. They cannot change genders. They are incredibly promiscuous creatures & often will attempt to produce more sperm to beat the male competition. Males will often approach lone females & attempt to mate with them. They will not mate in large groups. It is estimated that approximately 62.5% of mating events happen when a male approaches a lone female in order to initiate reproduction. It is extremely rare to see a male approach large groups of females. When the males approach the females, they will often go at very fast speeds in order to do so. They will also leap around the female occasionally. They will most often attempt to approach the female from above. The calves will often get separated from their mothers during this event. For approximately 25% of events, the calf will accompany the mother. During an experiment in which these mating events were documented, it was observed that the males always attempted to initiate breeding by positioning their ventral sides on the females’ left side. This extreme laterality in sexual approach has not been reported for any cetacean species. Males have also been known to have displayed their penis toward the female without attempting to initiate breeding. They do appear to have a specific breeding month or season, with that being from June to September. The females will often engage with more than one male per breeding season. The females will usually only give birth to one single calf. They give birth through live birth & they do not lay eggs. Their gestation period is somewhat close to humans, being approximately 10-11. They do lactate, often for approximately 8-12 months after the baby is born. Calves can usually consume solid food such as fish at around 5 months old. The calves will usually leave their mothers at 9 months. However, it can be up to 12 months. The Distribution Of The Harbour Porpoise The Harbour porpoise is found around 4 of 7 continents. These continents are Africa, Europe, South America, & finally North America. They do have geographically distinct populations. This species currently has 3 subspecies. These subspecies are known as Phocena Phocena Phocena in the North Atlantic & western African regions, Phocena Phocena Reilcta in the Black Sea & the Sea of Azov, & finally Phocena Phocena Vomerina in the Northeast Pacific. They have an estimated population of 700,000. The actual demographic of how many are in each area of the world does not currently exist. However, they are most commonly seen throughout Europe, suggesting the population is largely based in that area. Since they have blubber, they are able to survive in frigid polar waters. The Scientific Detailings Of The Harbour Porpoise Harbor porpoises are unique for their incredible intelligence. As stated in the first section of this article entry, they have shown signs of self-awareness & self-recognition. They also seem to feel emotions, both negative & positive. Whenever a caretaker who they get food from or play with enters their vicinity they seem to become happier & more relaxed. They are able to show some level of affection. They also have a very similar body mass-to-brain ratio as humans. They are also able to hold grudges against humans or other species who have physically injured them or caused discomfort in the past. Their brains are quite complex as well. Porpoises have spade-shaped teeth for ripping apart meat. They are vertebrates. In the porpoise's flippers, individual finger bones can be found. This is a remanent of their ancient land-walking ancestors. Porpoises do not have specialized organs that are only found in porpoises specifically. When swimming, they move their tail fin & lower body themup & down which propels themselves through vertical movement, while their flippers are mainly used for steering. Flipper movement is continuous. Some species log out of the water, which may allow them to travel faster, and sometimes they porpoise out of the water, meaning jump out of the water. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity for fur or hair, & three middle ear bones. There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Artiodactyla. which are even-toed ungulates. Species categorized under Artiodactyla are ungulates, hoofed animals which bear weight equally on two of their five toes, these toes are the third & fourth toes. The other three toes are either present, absent, vestigial, or pointing posteriorly. Their infraorder is that of Cetacea. Key characteristics of this infraorder are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size & exclusively carnivorous diet. Another characteristic is their incredible social intelligence. There are roughly 90 species categorized under Cetacea at the time of publishing. Their family is known as Phocoenidae. This is the family in which all porpoise species are. Species in this family are more closely related to narwhals & beluga whales than true dolphins. Their genus is Phocena. This genus has 4 of the 8 porpoise species. All species in this genus are classified as porpoises. Their binomial name is known as Phocena Phocena. Directories / Credits 1. Harbor Porpoise - American Cetacean Society 2. https://waggonerguide.com/how-do-whales-and-dolphins-sleep/ 3. The porpoise of hybridization – Marine Biology @ Friday Harbor Labs 4. The Sex Life of Harbor Porpoises: Lateralized and Aerial Behavior 5. https://animalia.bio/harbour-porpois Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The Documented History Of Nevis, Saint Kitts & Nevis Today's article will discuss the history of the island known as Nevis. Saint Nevis is an island that exists in the Caribbean. It is a part of the country known as the Federation of Saint Kitts & Nevis. Nevis is the smaller of the 2 islands that are from the country of Saint Kitts & Nevis. It is a part of the lesser Antilles. It is a part of the archipelago group known as the Leeward Islands. Nevis is approximately 383.31 Nautical / Marine miles from its closest point to mainland South America, specifically the country of Venezuela. It is also approximately 1128.85 Nautical / Marine Miles from the State of Florida, United States Of America.  The ocean that surrounds Nevis is the Atlantic. It rests in the Caribbean Sea. The island is in the vague shape of a circle, which is incredibly uncommon. The island is well known for its beautiful beaches & high amount of exotic marine life. The island was formed via the Atlantic plate & North American plate moving towards each other & eventually colliding. The island was created approximately 3.45 million years ago. The capital of the island is known as Charleston. Charleston just so happens to also be the largest city on the island. However, this is not the capital of the country. The capital of the country is known as Basseterre & it exists on the sister island of Saint Kitts. They are a part of the commonwealth still. The island is approximately 336.7 square miles (872.049 square kilometers). The current population of the island is approximately 11,108. This number was found during a 2011 census. The highest elevation on the island is known as Nevis Peak. It is approximately 3,232 feet (985.1136 meters) high. It is the dormant remnant of an ancient stratovolcano. There are approximately 5 designated bays around the island. There are approximately 5 administrative divisions on Nevis. These administrative zones are known as Parishes. The names of these parishes as as follows in order from largest to smallest; Saint James Windward, Saint John Figtree, Saint George Gingerland, Saint Tomas Lowland, & Saint Paul Charleston. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Nevis as a whole, The known aboriginals of Nevis, the most destructive man-caused & natural disasters of Nevis, & finally a segment on the Saint Kittian & Nevisian economies. With that being said, let us delve into the paradise island of Nevis. The Documented History Of Nevis, Saint Kitts & Nevis Before Colonization The first natives who arrived on the island were the Ciboney. They originated from the islands of Hispaniola & Cuba. They arrived approximately 3,000 years ago (Or approximately 980 B.C.). They lacked a distinct pottery style making their timeline uncertain. The Arawaks arrived much later in approximately 800 A.D. The Caribs arrived within the following years & had taken over Saint Kitts & Nevis by the time of the Spanish invasion. The peak Population on the island most likely fell between 500 A.D & 600 A.D. The natives collectively called the island Oualie, which translates to “Land Of Beautiful Waters”. After Colonization Please note that this will only involve the history of Nevis, not Saint Kitts. The 15th Century Christopher Columbus noted the island on his second voyage through the Caribbean. He did not make landfall, however he did see the island. He noted its appearance down on the dates of November 11th, 1432 & November 13th, 1432. At first, he named Saint Kitts “Saint George” & Nevis “San Martin”. The 16th Century An English Privateer & seaman known as Sir Francis Duke noted a visit to the island around the 25th of December 1585. The 17th Century The next time the island had contact with the Europeans was in 1603. This was by English Captain & mariner Bartholomew Gilbert. His visit was to gather, a certain type of Caribbean wood known as Ligum Vitae (Guayacan). After this he was documented to have sailed to Saint Kitts. He stayed for approximately 2 weeks & in this short period gathered 20 tons of the aforementioned wood. In 1607, English Captain & Colonial governor John Smith stopped at Nevis for five days on his way to founding the first successful settlement in the U.S. state of Virginia. Captain Smith wrote about the many hot springs that exist in Nevis, whose waters had mystical curative abilities against skin diseases & bad health. It is unlikely that these waters healing properties. English explorer Robert Harcourt stopped at Nevis in 1608. The length of his stay was undocumented & his reason for staying was also undocumented. The island legally became a British Colony in the year 1620. It was known as the Colony Of Nevis. However, actual European settlement did not occur until 1628. The reason for this delay if there was one, remains unknown. In the year 1628, Anthony Hilton moved from nearby Saint Kitts following a murder plot against him. The exact reason for this murder plot is unspecified. 80 other settlers accompanied him, soon boosted by a further 100 settlers from London who had initially hoped to settle on the island of Barbuda. Hilton became the first Governor of Nevis. After the Treaty of Madrid in 1670 between Spain & England, Nevis became the seat of the British colony & the Admiralty Court also sat in Nevis. Between the years 1675 & 1730, the island was the headquarters for the slave trade for the Leeward Islands, with approximately 6,000–7,000 enslaved West Africans passing through en route to other islands each year. It would remain like this for quite some time. The Royal African Company brought all its ships through Nevis. This effectively made Nevis a sort of exchange point or way station for incoming ships to North America. A census in the year 1678 shows a community of Irish People as being 22% of the population. They either existed as either indentured servants or freemen. Due to the profitable slave trade on the island & the high quality of Nevisian sugar cane, Nevis soon became a dominant source of wealth for Great Britain & the slave-owning British plantocracy. When the Leeward Isles were separated from Barbados in the year 1671, Nevis became the seat of the Leeward Islands British colony. It was at this point that the island was given the nickname "Queen of the Caribees". It remained the colonial capital for the Leeward Islands until the seat was transferred to Antigua for military reasons in 1698. During this period, Nevis was the richest of the British Leeward Islands. Nevis soon outranked larger islands like Jamaica in sugar production in the late 17th century. The planters' wealth on the island is evident in the tax records preserved in the Calendar State Papers in the British Colonial Office Public Records, where the amount of tax collected on the Leeward Islands was recorded. The sums recorded for 1676 as "head tax on slaves", a tax payable in sugar, amounted to 384,600 pounds in Nevis, as opposed to 67,000 each in Antigua & Saint Kitts, 62,500 in Montserrat, & 5,500 total in the other five islands. The enslaved families on Nevis formed the large labor force required to work the sugar plantations. After the 1650s, the supply of white indentured servants began to dry up due to increased wages in England & less incentive to migrate to the colonies. By the end of the 17th century, the population of Nevis consisted of a small wealthy planter elite in control, a marginal population of poor Whites, a great majority of African-descended slaves, and an unknown number of Maroons. The “Maroons” were the names of escaped African slaves who were living in the mountains. In 1780, 90% of the 10,000 people living on Nevis were African. Some of the maroons joined with the few remaining Arawakan groups in Nevis to form a resistance force. Memories of the Nevisian maroons' struggle under the plantation system are preserved in place names such as Maroon Hill, an early center of resistance. The great wealth generated by the colonies of the West Indies led to wars among Spain, Britain, & France. These wars were usually for ownership of these islands to cultivate sugar on the islands. The formation of the United States can be said to be a partial by-product of these wars, & the strategic trade aims that often ignored North America. Three privateers were employed by the British Crown to help protect ships in Nevisian waters. During the 17th century, the French, based on Saint Kitts, launched many attacks on Nevis. These attacks were occasionally assisted by the few remaining Arawakan Groups. In the year 1667, these Arawakan groups sent a large fleet of dug-out canoes along in support. In the same year, a Franco-Dutch invasion fleet was repelled off Nevis by an English fleet. Letters & other records from the era indicate that the English on Nevis hated & feared the Amerindians. This was a result of racism towards the Natives. This hatred also may have been perpetuated by the Spanish spreading the idea that they practiced cannibalism. In 1674 & 1683, they participated in attacks on Arawakan villages in Dominica & Saint Vincent, despite a lack of official approval from the crown for this attack. On Nevis, the English built what is now known as Fort Charles & a series of smaller fortifications to aid in defending the island. This included Saddle Hill Battery, built in 1740 to replace a deodand on Nevis Peak. The 18th Century In 1706 Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville, the French Canadian founder of the U.S state  Louisiana in North America, decided to drive the English out of Nevis & thus also stop pirate attacks on French ships; he considered Nevis the region's headquarters for piracy against French trade. During d'Iberville's invasion of Nevis, French buccaneers were used in the front line, infamous for being ruthless killers after the pillaging during the wars with Spain where they gained a reputation for torturing and murdering non-combatants. In the face of the invading force, the English militiamen of Nevis fled. Some plantation owners burned the plantations, rather than letting the French have them, & they proceeded to hide in the mountains. It was the enslaved Africans who held the French at bay by taking up arms to defend their families & the island. The slave quarters had been looted and burned as well, as the main reward promised to the men fighting on the French side in the attack was the right to capture as many slaves as possible for the purpose of reselling them in Martinique. During the fighting, approximately 3,400 enslaved Nevisians were captured and sent off to Martinique. About approximately 1,000 more, poorly armed & militarily untrained, held the French troops at bay, by "murderous fire" according to an eyewitness account by an English militiaman. He wrote that "the slave's brave behavior & defense there shamed what some of their masters did, & they do not shrink to tell us so.” After 18 days of fighting, the French were driven off the island. Among the Nevisian men, women & children carried away on d'Iberville's ships, six ended up in Louisiana, the first persons of African descent to arrive there. One consequence of the French attack was a collapsed sugar industry & during the ensuing hardship on Nevis, small plots of land on the plantations were made available to the enslaved families in order to control the loss of life due to starvation. With less profitability for the absentee plantation owners, the import of food supplies for the plantation workers dwindled. Between 1776 & 1783, when the food supplies failed to arrive altogether due to the rebellion in North America, 300–400 enslaved Nevisians were starved to death. A four-year apprenticeship program followed the abolishment of slavery on the plantations. In spite of the continued use of the labor force, the Nevisian slave owners were paid over £150,000 in compensation from the British Government for the loss of property, whereas the enslaved families received nothing for 200 years of labor. One of the wealthiest planter families in Nevis, the Pinneys of Mountravers Plantation, claimed £36,396 (equivalent to approximately 4,019,385.35£ in 2021) in compensation for the slaves on the family-owned plantations around the Caribbean. Because of the early distribution of plots &  because many of the planters departed from the island when sugar cultivation became unprofitable, a relatively large percentage of Nevisians already owned or controlled land at emancipation. Others settled on crown land. This early development of a society with a majority of small, landowning farmers & entrepreneurs created a stronger middle class in Nevis than in Saint Kitts, where the sugar industry continued until 2006. Even though the 15 families in the wealthy planter elite no longer control the arable land, Saint Kitts still has a large, landless working-class population. The 19th Century On the 1st of August 1834, slavery was officially abolished in the British Empire. In Nevis, 8,815 slaves were freed. The first Monday in August is celebrated as Emancipation Day & is part of the annual Nevis Culturama festival. The population had reached 7,470 by 1842. Nevis was united with Saint Kitts & Anguilla in the year 1882, & they became an associated state. with full internal autonomy in 1967. Anguilla went on to secede in 1971. The 20th Century Before 1967, the local government of Saint Kitts was also the government of Nevis and Anguilla. Nevis had two seats and Anguilla one seat in the government. The economic and infrastructural development of the two smaller islands was not a priority to the colonial federal government. Together, Saint Kitts & Nevis became independent on 19 September 1983. On 10 August 1998, a referendum on Nevis to separate from Saint Kitts had 2,427 votes in favor & 1,498 against, falling short of the two-thirds majority needed. When the hospital in Charlestown was destroyed in a hurricane in 1899, planting of trees in the squares of Saint Kitts and refurbishing of government buildings, also in Saint Kitts, took precedence over the rebuilding of the only hospital in Nevis. After five years without any proper medical facilities, the leaders in Nevis initiated a campaign, threatening to seek independence from Saint Kitts. The British Administrator in Saint Kitts, Charles Cox, was unmoved. He stated that Nevis did not need a hospital since there had been no significant rise in the number of deaths during the time Nevisians had been without a hospital. Therefore, no action was needed on behalf of the government, & besides, Cox continued, the Legislative Council regarded "Nevis and Anguilla as a drag on Saint Kitts & would willingly see a separation". A letter of complaint to the metropolitan British Foreign Office gave the result & the federal government in Saint Kitts was ordered by their superiors in London to take speedy action. The Legislative Council took another five years to consider their options. The final decision by the federal government was to not rebuild the old hospital after all but to instead convert the old Government House in Nevis into a hospital, named Alexandra Hospital after Queen Alexandra, wife of King Edward VII. A majority of the funds assigned for the hospital could thus be spent on the construction of a new official residence in Nevis. Electricity was introduced in Nevis in 1954 when two generators were shipped in to provide electricity to the area around Charlestown. In this regard, Nevis fared better than Anguilla, where there were no paved roads, no electricity & no telephones until 1967. However, electricity did not become available island-wide on Nevis until 1971. After d'Iberville's invasion in 1704, records show Nevis' sugar industry in ruins & a decimated population begging the English Parliament & relatives for loans & monetary assistance to stave off island-wide starvation. The sugar industry on the island never fully recovered & during the general depression that followed the loss of the West Indian sugar monopoly, Nevis fell on hard times & the island became one of the poorest in the region. The island remained poorer than Saint Kitts until 1991 when the fiscal performance of Nevis edged ahead of the fiscal performance of Saint Kitts for the first time since the French invasion. An ambitious infrastructure development programme was introduced in the early 2000s which included a transformation of the Charlestown port, the construction of a new deep-water harbor, the resurfacing &  widening of the Island Main Road, a new airport terminal & control tower, as well as a major airport expansion, which required the relocation of an entire village in order to make room for the runway extension. Modernized classrooms & better-equipped schools, as well as improvements in the educational system, have contributed to a leap in academic performance on the island. The pass rate among the Nevisian students sitting for the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) exams, the Cambridge General Certificate of Education Examination (GCE) & the Caribbean Advance Proficiency Examinations is now consistently among the highest in the English-speaking Caribbean. The Documented Aboriginal Tribes Of Saint Kitts & Nevis The Carib / Kalingo Indigenous Peoples The Caribs of Nevis were an indigenous Amerindian of the Caribbean lesser Antilles. They are also known as the Kalingo or Kalina. They also lived in South America. They spoke a language that is modernly known as Island Carib which is classified as a highly endangered language. They were one of the least peaceful tribes in the Caribbean. They had many warlike tactics & were believed to have mandatory combat training. They were taller, bulkier, & stronger than the Arawaks due to the emphasis on being a warrior & being able to defend their home. They utilized their marine resources often & had a strong fishing industry. Fish was one of the most common foods, they also were believed to have bred some fish. They had large boats which were most similar to a modern-day Canoe, these boats could hold up to 12 persons. However, their largest warships could hold up to 100 persons. These boats looked similar to a modern-day dugout canoe. However, they also could use & build sails. They used these to raid the Arawaks as well as to fish. They also utilized the ocean in other ways often. They fought with the other tribes of The lesser Antilles such as the Arawaks who were relatively peaceful. They hunted mammals as well. They revered the bones of their elders or family members & they burnt off fat from their enemies or prisoners of war during battle rituals. They were labeled as cannibals & savages by the Spanish & British on their individual conquests, this was in an effort to justify conquering their lands & enslaving them. The modern-day word cannibal originates from the word Carib due to their alleged cannibalistic practices. They invented certain types of primitive barbecues as well which they most likely used to barbecue the Arawaks. However, if they were cannibalistic they did not consume the entire body. Allegedly, their reasoning for this was that if they consumed a little bit of their enemy after they were dead, they would assume the characteristics of that person. Also, there is evidence to believe that early Caribs were not cannibals. They were on average approximately 5 feet 5 inches. They had a brown hue to their skin similar to that of a modern-day Latin American person. They did not appear to wear clothing of any kind. The women would paint their skin with a red dye known as Roucou which is made from the extract of the seeds of the Achiote tree. The women also circled their eyes with black pigment. The males would also paint their bodies and on occasion wore feathered headdresses, jewelry & piercings of all kinds through their lips, and large hoop jewelry through their noses. Nose piercings were fairly common among both genders. The males also wore the Caracoli which was a necklace of small bones along with the teeth of defeated enemies from which a crescent-shaped bone-carved ornament was suspended. The Caracoli necklace was worn to represent the courage of the wearer, it was typically worn by men & there isn’t much evidence that it was worn by women. The women also commonly lived in different houses from the men. Arts were common among the Caribs. Basket weaving was a common type of art that was done both for function & for art. Pottery was quite common among Caribs as well. They had many different structural styles of pottery. It is also important to note that most men spoke Island Carib languages, however, women spoke mostly Arawakan languages. They often used bows & arrows when hunting or fighting. This weaponry unfortunately was not very helpful during the initial British Invasion. However, their boats were. They were infamous for using one of their warships to catch European boats. This is one of the main reasons why Saint Lucia wasn’t colonized for such a long time. They did not have a social or societal construct & did not have any form of government. Little is known about their religion however it is believed that they practiced polytheism. The Arawak Indigenous Peoples The Arawak Indigenous peoples existed throughout the lesser Antilles & heavily throughout northern South America. They were also known as the Taino people. They spoke many different dialects of Arawaken languages. They were quite peaceful & often avoided to engage in combat. They mostly only fought in defense or if they were being directly threatened. They often did not fight with other Arawak populations. They often practiced farming of corn, beans, pepper, sweet potatoes, ground nuts, & cassava. They also practiced fishing with nets & spearfishing. They used weaving techniques to build the nets. They also bred their fish in individual ponds. They hunted any animals that were available using spears, bows, & blow guns. They, however, did not use the pelts to make clothes. Most of the time Arawaks stood naked, with men occasionally wearing loincloths. The women wore short skirts & beaded shell necklaces. They also did not make shoes of any kind. On occasion, they would paint their bodies various colors such as black, white, or red. They were described as being of medium height by Columbus, which most likely means approximately 5 feet & 3 inches. They also generally were quite slim in build. Their skin was a dark tanned colour. Their hair was a black color & was coarse. They often wore jewelry & ornaments on their neck, ears, lips, & noses. These ornaments varied in material however they were often made with clay, shell, or cotton. Some of these ornaments were braided into hair & used as hair pieces as well. They did have social & societal constructs, with each group of Arawaks having a chief. For fun & religious purposes, they had festivals. These festivals entailed singing, dancing, & eating food with the community. They had instruments such as wooden gongs, reed pipes, & certain types of drums. They also had a kind of primitive oven which was used to bake small flat cakes. Games were also a common pastime of them, one game they invented was a ball game called Batos. Their religion was polytheistic & their gods were called Zemi. These Zemi would control various sectors of the known universe. The Ciboney Indigenous People The Ciboney indigenous peoples lived throughout the Caribbean. They lived throughout Cuba & as well as the greater & lesser Antilles. They were also known as the Siboney. Their language was unknown & it a language was an isolate. They often stayed out of the way & lived on the coastlines. Their ambitions in relation to war & peace are unknown. They did not farm anything to our knowledge, instead opting to hunt & gather their supplies. They did not write anything down, so extremely little is known about them as the majority of them were gone before the Europeans arrived. Some of their primary sources of food were shellfish, turtles, & certain available island rodents. They also lacked in arts such as pottery & weaving. They may have originated from southern America in the areas of modern-day Venezuela. If they were, they would have migrated to Cuba. Alternatively, they may have originated from the southern areas of modern-day Florida. However, they did not have very good maritime technologies. The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters Of Saint Kitts & Nevis No. 1 Christena Disaster Of Nevis The Christena disaster was a ferryboat disaster that occurred on the 1st of August 1970. A specific time for this disaster was not given. This disaster involved a ferryboat that ended up causing 233 casualties. This ferryboat was a ferryboat that operated from Basseterre to Charleston. At this point, the boat had no known malformations that would cause the vessel to collapse or stop working effectively. On the afternoon of Saturday, August the 1st 1970, the ferry boat was overloaded on her final run of the day from St. Kitts to Nevis. The passenger capacity was 155, but that afternoon the Christena had approximately 320 people on board. This may have had a causal relationship with what ended up happening. When the boat was half a mile off Nags Head which is in the southern area of Saint Kitts, & entering the rougher seas that line up with the channel between the two islands, the ferry boat took on water and sank. Unfortunately, there were only 91 survivors. The great majority of those were people that had to be rescued. After this point 57 bodies were retrieved from the vessel after sinking, these 57 were identified. 66 other bodies were retrieved from the wreckage however these were unable to be identified. These bodies remain unknown to this day. Including all survivors & bodies carved from the wreckage, there are approximately 214 bodies accounted for. This leaves 106 bodies unaccounted for. No. 2 Great Hurricane Of 1780 The great hurricane of 1780 is the deadliest Atlantic hurricane on record if we are going by total fatalities. This hurricane lasted from October 9th, 1780 to October 20th, 1780. It is estimated that approximately 22,000 people died from this hurricane. This hurricane passed through the Lesser Antilles area. This was non-arguably the worst hurricane to hit Nevis. The storm passed through the islands from October 10th to 16th. Unfortunately, very little is documented about this hurricane due to the official Atlantic hurricane database only going as far back as 1851. It is estimated that this hurricane was a category 5. The highest wind speed for this hurricane was 200 miles (321.869 kilometers per hour) per hour. The hurricane was most concentrated in the area of the French Islands, it killed approximately 9,000 people throughout the French Isles. No. 3 Hurricane Irma Hurricane Irma was an extremely powerful Cape Verde Atlantic hurricane that lasted from August 30th, 2017 through September 13th, 2017. Hurricane Irma was a category 5 Atlantic Hurricane. There were a total of 134 fatalities caused by this hurricane. 52 of these fatalities were direct & 82 of them were not. The highest winds from this hurricane were 180 miles (289.682 kilometers per hour) per hour. It was the fifth costliest Atlantic hurricane in all of the Atlantic hurricane Databases' history. The Economic State Of Saint Kitts & Nevis The economic state of Nevis is relatively stable however the economy may not be in the best shape. Due to hurricanes, Nevis is severely damaged every year & this caused the Nevisian government to bleed money. The currency that is used in Saint Kitts & Nevis is the Eastern Caribbean Dollar or the XCD. As of 2018, we have seen a 4.6% economic growth. Their GDP per capita is 17,513$ as of 2018. Their GDP by sector is 3.5% agriculture, 25.8% industry, & finally 70.7% services. Their current labor force is approximately made up of 18,172$ people. The island has a 4.5% unemployment rate. Their main industries are currently tourism, cotton, salt, copra, clothing, footwear, beverages, light manufacturing, & finally component assembly for export. Their main export partners are the United States Of America (69%), Germany (8%), & finally Italy (5%). Their current gross external debt is 314 million USD. Directories / Credits https://www.britannica.com/place/Saint-Kitts-and-Nevis/History Hubbard, Vincent K. (2002). Swords, Ships & Sugar: History of Nevis. Corvallis, Oregon: Premiere, ISBN 1-891519-05-0, pp. 20–23 (Captain Gilbert, Captain Smith), 25 (pearl diving), 41–44 (name Dulcina, treaty with Spain, first settlement), 69–70 (privateers, Captain Francis), 79–85 (slave trade, Royal African Company, Queen of the Caribees), 86–102 (Caribs), 113–120 (d'Iberville, buccaneers), 138–139 (Great Britain's wealth derived from West Indian sugar and slave trade, 1776 starvation), 194–195 (Alexandra Hospital), 211–223 (electricity, Anguilla in 1967, OECD blacklist). The Prehistoric Settlement Pattern of Nevis, West Indies". Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Winter 1989), p. 427-450. ^ Jump up to: a b Honychurch, Lennox (1997). "Crossroads in the Caribbean: A Site of Encounter and Exchange on Dominica". World Archaeology Vol. 28(3): 291–304. ^ "Irish indentured labor in the Caribbean". Archived 22 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Nationalarchives.gov.uk. 11 March 2013. ^ Calendar State Papers (1676). Number 1152, 1676. The British Colonial Office Public Records. Qt. in Hubbard, p. 85. ^ Watts, David (1987). The West Indies: Patterns of Development, Culture and Environmental Change Since 1492. Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 285. ^ Goveia, Elsa H. (1965). Slave Society in the British Leeward Islands. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965. ISBN 0-88258-048-5 Personal stories: Traders and Merchants – John Pinney. In Bristol and Transatlantic Slavery, a project by the City Museum and the University of the West of England's Faculty of Humanities. ^ Baker Motley, Constance (1998). Equal Justice Under Law. An Autobiography. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 0-374-14865-1. An excerpt from the autobiography, describing her search in Nevis church records for her family's history during the era of slavery, is available online at The New York Times Book Review. Retrieved 8 August 2006. ^ Simmonds, Keith C. (1987). "Political and Economic Factors Influencing the St. Kitts-Nevis Polity: An Historical Perspective". Phylon, 48:4. 4th Qtr., 1987, pp. 277–286. ^ The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol.IV. London: Charles Knight. 1848. p. 772. ^ Qt. in Hubbard, p. 195. ^ Brown, Janet (2000). "Early Childhood Investment in St. Kitts and Nevis: A Model for the Caribbean?". Caribbean Child Development Centre, School of Continuing Studies, UWI, Mona: "St. Kitts-Nevis has one of the highest levels of CXC passes in the region." ^ "Education official calls on students to push beyond their comfort zones" Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Nevis Government Information Service, 10 January 2007: "In 2002, Nevis captured the award for Most Outstanding School for the year in the Region. [...] In the May/June examinations of 2006, Nevis again recorded its name in the annals of CXC's when it captured two of the eight awards in Business Studies and Technical/vocational Studies. Nevis returned the best performance in Business Studies in the Region in two of the three years that the award had been offered". For results at individual schools, see Caines, Jaedee. "Proud Moment For Lyn Jeffers School" Archived 1 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine. The Observer, 13 October 2005; "Minister of Education to GSS 2005 graduands: The future of Nevis depends on you" Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. SKN Vibes, 24 November 2005; and Washington Archibald High School obtains highest CXC pass rate among 7 others. SKN Vibes, 4 September 2006. Retrieved 7 May 2007. Wilson, Samuel (1990). "The Prehistoric Settlement Pattern of Nevis, West Indies". Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Winter 1989), p. 428: "The breakup of the fringing reef has itself contributed to extensive and accelerating coastal erosion on the windward coast of the island, where sea cliffs of unconsolidated volcanic gravels as high as 25 m have developed." Herbert, Roy (2005). "A short historical look at the Relationship between St. Kitts & Nevis" Archived 18 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Historical Review. Nevis Independence, 4 February 2005. Retrieved 8 August 2006. ^ "Nevis: 'Reform before independence'". BBC Caribbean, online edition, 26 January 200 ^ Jump up to: a b Griffiths, Ann Lynn and Karl Nerenberg (2002). Handbook of Federal Countries. Ed. Karl Nerenberg. Published McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP, 2002. ISBN 0-7735-2511-4, p. 274. ^ General Election in St Kitts and Nevis 3 July 1995: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group. Commonwealth Observer Group, Commonwealth Secretariat, 1995. ISBN 0-85092-466-9, p.3. ^ "Independence for Nevis still on the agenda, says premier." Caribbean Net News, 16 June 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2006. ^ Office of the Prime Minister (1998). "PM Douglas Maintains 1983 Constitution is Flawed." Archived 22 October 2003 at the Wayback Machine Media Release, 11 March 1998. Retrieved 8 August 2006. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h The Concerned Citizens Movement (1996). "The Way Forward For The Island Of Nevis." Nevis, Queen of the Caribees. Nevis Island Administration, September 1996. Retrieved 8 August 2006. ^ "Secession – The Way Forward For Nevis & St. Kitts – Wealth Management – Nevis". mondaq.com. ^ "Nevis Independent Travel". nevisindependence.com. Archived from the original on 18 June 2006. ^ Jump up to: a b Phillips, Fred (2002). Commonwealth Caribbean Constitutional Law. Cavendish Publishing, 2002, ISBN 1-84314-429-8. ^ St. Kitts and Nevis Observer July 16–22, 1995. Qtd. in The Concerned Citizens Movement. "The Way Forward For The Island Of Nevis." Nevis, Queen of the Caribees. Nevis Island Administration, September 1996. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates. Ruth Deborah Gates was one of the world’s foremost experts on coral ecology, & the effects of ocean acidification on coral. She founded the Gates Coral Laboratory, & has innovated astonishing techniques regarding coral conservation. Her techniques involved figuring out what exactly caused corals to survive stress, & genetically amplifying the gene that caused it to survive. She was also the director of the Hawai’i Institute for Marine Biology, located on Coconut Island.    According to her own testimony, she has a deep passion for the field, & has had it since she was an adolescent. In addition to her career as a scientist, marine biologist, & laboratory director, she has done quite a lot of public speaking, mentorship, & working on documentaries. She & her work were featured in the 2017 Emmy-winning documentary “Chasing Coral”. In this article, we shall discuss the Education & Formative Years Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates, The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates & the Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honorables Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates. With that being said, let us delve into the life of one of the most well versed coral biologists of the 21st Century. The Education & Formative Years Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates Ruth Deborah Gates was born on March 28th, 1962. She was born on Akrotiri, which is an area controlled by the British on the island of Cyprus. She was born to John Amos Gates, a Royal British Airforce Intelligence Officer, & Muriel Peel Gates, a physiotherapist. With her father in the military, she was always moving around as a child. For her education, she was sent to a boarding school in Kent, England. Her intense fascination with the ocean & coral biology was always present, however it truly began to blossom in her university years. She enrolled & studied at the esteemed Newcastle University, & earned a Bachelors of Science in Marine Biology Biology. Graduating in 1984, she went on a diving trip to the West Indies to study coral. On this trip, she became absolutely enraptured by them. Soon after, in 1985, she moved to the West Indies to study these corals. She would get her doctorate in Marine Biology in the year 1990, from the same university. Her thesis was on the subject of Seawater temperature & algal-cnidarian symbiosis. The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates Her first large research projects about coral bleaching events in Jamaica. Soon after, she would conduct research at University Of California, Los Angeles, & the University of Hawai’i. She officially joined the University of Hawai’i in 2003. It is here where she studied how coral reefs function, & what made some corals survive high temperatures. In the year 2013, the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation offered 10,000$ to anyone or any group who could offer the most promising proposal to mitigate the effects of ocean acidification. Gates & another scientist, Madeline Van Oppen, a scientist with the Australian Institute of Marine Science, rose to the challenge. They managed to develop highly resilient coral strains, & won the award. Along with the 10,000 dollars, the foundation granted them a 4 million dollar grant, with the long term goal of developing a stock of coral strains that can replace certain dying coral reefs of the world. Despite criticism on the logistics, & financial support required for such undertakings, the scientist persevered. In 2014, her brother, Timothy Gates, introduced her to Robin Burton, who would later become her wife. The pair would in September of 2018. & remained married until Gate’s passing. In 2015, founded & directed the Gates Coral Laboratory, at the Hawai’i Institute of Marine Biology. She would direct the laboratory for 3 more years, until her unfortunate passing. Gates & her team hosted the first coral restoration conference at the Hawai’i Institute Of Marine Biology in 2017, which brought together some of the worlds best coral biologists to discuss coral restoration. Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates passed away at the age of 56, on October 25th in Kailua, Hawai’i. She passed at Castle Hospital. She passed away due to complications for a surgery related to diverticulitis. Purportedly, she also had cancer that had spread to her brain. Throughout her life, she enjoyed karate, & earned a third degree black belt in it. She had a deep respect for the martial art, so much that she started a small school for it in Hawai’i. Additionally, she learnt how to remodel homes, & mastered the art of cooking. Throughout her career, she was always accessible to the public, & did a lot of public speaking & a few interviews. The super corals that she engineered will have an incredible impact on coral ecosystems, as well as humans. Her contributions to coral reef biology will not be forgotten, & her contributions will have a long lasting impact on the coral reefs of our world. The Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honourables Of Ruth Deborah Gates Achievement No. 1: She Founded The Gates Coral Laboratory, which is still in operation at the time of publishing. Achievement No. 2: She was awarded the Regents Medal for Excellence in Research. Achievement No. 3: She engineered super corals that are able to survive extremely high temperatures, along with scientist Madeline Van Oppen. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “In Memoriam: Ruth D. Gates”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the University of Hawai’i. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://research.hawaii.edu/noelo/in-memoriam-ruth-d-gates/ Citation No. 2: “Ruth Gates, Who Made Saving Coral Reefs Her Mission, Is Dead at 56”, Written By Katharine Q. Seeyle, & Published on November 5th, 2018. Published by the New York Times. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/05/obituaries/ruth-gates-dead-marine-biologist-who-championed-coral.html Citation No. 3: “Ruth D. Gates (1962-2018)”, Written by Peter J. Edmunds, & Doctor M. Weis, & Published on December 10th, 2018. Published by Springer Nature. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0763-4 Citation No. 4: “Ruth Gates Obituary” Written by Barbara Brown, & Published on November 22nd, 2018. Published by The Guardian. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://amp.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/22/ruth-gates-obituary Citation No. 5: “Ruth Gates, renowned coral scientist & conservation advocate, dies at 56”, Written by Christie Wilcox & Published on October 31st, 2018. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/ruth-gates-renowned-coral-scientist-and-conservation-advocate-dies-at-56/2018/10/31/535ca9da-dc73-11e8-b732-3c72cbf131f2_story.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding The Nevisian Island Of Nevis Today's article will discuss the oceans surrounding the island of Saint Nevis. Saint Nevis is an island that exists in the Caribbean. It is a part of the country known as Saint Kitts & Nevis. Nevis is the smaller of the 2 islands that are from the country of Saint Kitts & Nevis. It is a part of the lesser Antilles. It is a part of the archipelago group known as the Leeward Islands. Saint Nevis is approximately 383.31 Nautical / Marine miles from its closest point to mainland South America, specifically the country of Venezuela. It is also approximately 1128.85 Nautical / Marine Miles from the State of Florida, United States Of America.  The ocean that surrounds Saint Nevis is the Atlantic. It rests in the Caribbean Sea. The island is in the vague shape of a circle, which is incredibly uncommon. The island is well known for its beautiful beaches & high amount of exotic marine life. The island is extremely marine biodiverse due to its placement in Venezuela. You see, it is far enough away that Venezuelan vicious creatures such as caiman cannot swim up the coast easily.  This makes it a sort of haven for certain species to escape. This also means that water from the Orinoco River doesn’t disperse near the island. The water from the Orinoco is a murky brown, which is a stark contrast to the clear blue water of the Caribbean Sea. When water from the Orinoco disperses in the Caribbean Sea, it causes the water to become murky, the best example of this is seen in southern Trinidad. Because Saint Nevis is so far away from Venezuela, their beaches remain a clear crystal blue. Saint Nevis is also a hot spot for coral reefs & large seagrass meadows. A reason for this is the attractive climate which doesn’t fluctuate. You see, in most other areas of the world, there are seasons where the water becomes colder & animals migrate away. However, in the Caribbean, this season is virtually nonexistent. This stable climate makes it so that finding food & nutrients in certain seasons isn’t difficult. It also makes it so that the coral itself can survive. Saint Nevis also doesn’t support many people meaning its natural resources haven’t been depleted yet. It also means that Saint Nevis is not very polluted. Oftentimes, places will become polluted as a result of a large population or a large tourist population. Saint Nevis has neither of these. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of Saint Nevis. With that being said, let us delve into the blissful isle of Saint Nevis. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Nevis The actual salinity level of Saint Nevis has not been released to the public domain as of 2024. Since the island is in the Atlantic, it will most likely have a higher salinity than say the Pacific Ocean or the Indian Ocean. Salt deposits / Brine Pools may be more common around the island due to the higher salinity. However, the existence of brine pools around the island has not been proven. The salinity levels of the Atlantic Ocean at any given time are between 35.5 & 34.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no ongoing factors that would lead to the salinity level being altered. The oceanic temperature of Saint Nevis can be found on a plethora of websites. The most user-friendly websites that have information about the oceanic temperature of Saint Nevis are the following: https://seatemperature.net, Sea Temperature Infohttps://seatemperature.info, Weather and Climatehttps://weather-and-climate.com, & finally Weather.plushttps://weather.plus. The tides of Saint Nevis can also be found there. The tides of Saint Nevis usually never get over 1.4 meters (4.59318 feet). This is due to the strange placement of Saint Nevis & the nearby wave patterns. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) from Saint Nevis is 1988.2 feet (606.00336 meters) deep.  There are no randomly forming currents around the island & there are no seasonal or permanent currents within 5 Nautical / Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) of the island. There is no known record of riptide dangerous enough to injure a person around Saint Nevis. Pollution around Saint Nevis is controlled. There is not much water pollution around the island. There are also no records of hazardous chemical contamination of the water around Saint Nevis. Swimming is a safe & common recreational activity around Saint Nevis. Snorkeling & scuba diving are also incredibly common recreational activities that take place around the island. As mentioned in the introduction, water is crystal clear & coral reefs can be seen from the beaches on the island. Some of the oceanic areas do run off into the island creating saltwater streams on the island. There are a total of 3 marine protected areas or MPAs throughout Saint Kitts & Nevis. The marine protected areas are currently known as; Marine Management Area, Sandy Point Reef, & Sandy Point Reef. There are 2 marine protected areas known as Sandy Point Reef around Saint Kitts & Nevis. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Nevis Coral Reefed Areas Coral reefs both large & small are incredibly common around Nevis. The only type of coral reef found around Nevis is the Fringing type. There are four main types of coral reefs Fringing, Patch reefs, Barrier, & Atolls. There are currently 44 designated reefs throughout Saint Kitts & Nevis. These 44 areas comprise approximately 204.248 square miles (529 square kilometers) of ocean. The exact species found around Nevis are known as Acropora palmata (Elkhorn coral) & Acropora cervicornis (Staghorn coral). The Staghorn coral is a cold water coral, which means that cold water coral is in confirmed presence around Nevis. Seagrass Meadows There is no specific place where these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually, smaller animals are found here, which makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses give birth. It consists mostly of seagrass. It also works as a fish nursery for the majority of the fish. The main species of seagrasses around Nevis are Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass),& Syringodium filiform (filament grass). Between the two, filament grass is found more frequently than turtle grass. Turtle grass is found as deep as 10 meters (32.8084 feet). Filament grass, however, makes up the majority of the deeper seagrass meadows. This is what makes filament grass more prominent. Syringodium Filiform is found as deep as 30 meters (98.4252 feet), this seagrass is usually found further off the coast rather than the other species. Seagrass meadows are also usually found near mangrove forests or are found embellishing coral reefs. Mangrove Forests Mangrove forests are areas where the trees & the ocean connect. This creates a unique ecosystem in which there is shallow brackish water, & lots of roots. The tree roots make a sort of underwater labyrinth for the fish & other creatures to enjoy. Mangrove forests are usually found further inland than mangrove coasts. The ocean usually runs off into these areas. Mangrove forests are especially unique because they have excessive nutrients. This is due to the meeting of the forest organisms & the oceanic organisms. The exact species of these mangrove trees have currently not been released to the public domain. These mangrove forests may be alleged or very small in size as they do not show up on the majority of maps. It is extremely difficult to figure out where exactly these mangroves are located. The Documented Marine Flora Of Nevis The documented marine flora of Saint Kitts & Nevis are relatively common, however they are found in abundance. The main species of seagrasses around Nevis are Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass),& Syringodium filiform (filament grass). These are the only known species of seagrasses found around Nevis. The vast majority of seagrass meadows are found to the North of the island & the Northwest. There is 1 large seagrass patch to the south. There are no large seagrass patches to the east of the island. Algae from the genus Sargassum frequently wash up along the shores of Nevis. Sargassum is a genus of brown macroalgae that grows in large clumps around the Caribbean. There are very few other algae species found around Nevis. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Nevis Many different species of marine fauna are found around Nevis. The vast majority of these creatures do not live here year-round & only are found seasonally. However, a good majority of the creatures aren’t seasonal. Many creatures also come for shelter, food & large amounts of nutrients. This is a very appealing thing to most animals, especially the ones coming from the far Pacific. However, there are other contributing factors to the biodiversity of Nevis. The best places to see these marine creatures that we speak of are in the areas with coral reefs. The reason for that is due to the majority of the creatures hunting in the coral reefs or living in the coral reefs. Nowadays, oftentimes there is very little pollution or contamination of the oceanic water. A list of the most prominent species of marine creatures is as follows: Hippocampus Guttulatus (long-snout seahorse), Eretmochchelys Imbricata (Hawksbill turtle), Caretta Caretta (Loggerhead turtle), Chelonia Mydas (Green turtle), Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback Turtle), Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback whale), Physeter Macrocephalus (sperm whale), Panulirus Argus (spiny Caribbean lobster), & finally Stenella Attenuata (Pantropical Spotted Dolphin). There are too many tropical fish species to name. There are a total of 450 recorded species of tropical fish found around Nevis. How The Marine Resources Of Nevis Were Utilized & How That Affected The Environment The majority of the marine resources of Nevis have been left alone. The seagrasses & warm water corals of Nevis are in abundance. Frequently commercial fishing & fishing for private use happen in Nevisian waters. This affects the environment by causing population depletion. However, humans are affecting the marine environment in another way as well. You see, ocean acidification is causing the coral to slowly bleach around the Caribbean. Ocean acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, and deforestation, for the past 150 years.  When carbon dioxide contacts sea water, it forms carbonic acid.  Carbonic acid gives off positive H+ ions, which causes increased oceanic H+ concentrations and decreased oceanic Ph. Due to tourism in Nevis being popular, there are a lot of carbon emissions. Tourism is also common on the nearby island of Saint Kitts. Since the year 2000 coral has slowly disappeared throughout the Caribbean. However, there is a way of slowing this process. The way to do that is to prevent carbon dioxide levels from rising so rapidly. A good way to do this is to plant more kelp throughout the ocean. Directories / Credits https://mpatlas.org/countries/KN https://www.agrra.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/SKN-Report-Card_2016_WebLowRes.pdf https://chm.cbd.int/api/v2013/documents/C0A7116F-F642-2089-08C4-81605C16F1BC/attachments/208600/St.%20Kitts%20and%20Nevis%20Country%20Biodiversity%20Profile%20.pdf https://habitats.oceanplus.org/saint-kitts-and-nevis Welcome to St. Kitts and Nevis - Living Oceans Foundation Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of The Bay Of Biscay This article is the tenth installment in the Ode To Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map up for Analysis is an antique map of the Bay Of Biscay, Between the United Kingdom, France, Ireland, Spain, The Faroe Islands, & The Orkney Islands. The map is in fair condition, but there is a lot of moisture-curdling damage towards the center of the map. Though this does slightly degrade the overall quality of the map, everything is still perfectly legible.  In this article, we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface-level analysis of this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the Bay Of Biscay. The Map Itself Since the map is in English, there is no need for translation as this is the English Version of our newsletter. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in the year 1879, by Wilson & John William Norie, who were British cartographers. This map was found by Maps of Antiquity, a lovely New England map shop. This map was most likely made in Britain, as that is where John William Norie’s maps were primarily made. The map covers approximately 1,150 nautical miles (2129.8 kilometers, or 1323.396 miles), though this measurement is rough. The map is extremely accurate, & very few islands are left off of it. As far as we are aware, this map is not a part of a certain collection. This map does not display most topographical features. The map is currently uncolored, & it is most likely made uncolored. It was not made, or used for militaristic purposes as far as we can tell. The map does not seem to be centered on any country, or port. No coves, ports, or beaches are labeled on this map, as it is a small-scale map. This map was most certainly made using lithography, due to the timing, & the way that the map looks. Lithography became popular in the early 1800s, & commercial lithography in 1820, so the timing for the map to be made using this method aligns. Additionally, there are extremely few other methods that it would have been made with, as lithography was the cheapest & fastest way to produce maps at the time. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterward, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com. To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

An Interview With Marine Biology Author TheSirenLord Today’s article is an incredibly special one, as it contains an interview with a fantasy & marine biology author, as well as artist, The Siren Lord. The Siren Lord is a popular marine artist as well as marine biology author, who has been publishing drawings since 2017. He specializes in Trilobites, & has a deep passion & fascination with the order Trilobita. On April 13th, 2024, Our head writer interviewed The Siren Lord. We asked him approximately 19 questions, for which he gave very interesting & insightful answers. In this article, we will be discussing our Interview with The Siren Lord. With that being said, let us delve into the work of The Siren Lord. The Contents Of The Interview The Siren Lord’s passion for marine biology & paleontology was sparked as a child when his mother would bring him to the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science to see their terrestrial exhibits, & the gorgeous aquariums. These aquariums were both freshwater & saltwater, & this fascinated the young Siren Lord. This gave him an appreciation for living animal groups, & a fascination with marine life, especially trilobites. Modernly, he is most interested in Bony Fish, Trilobites, & Crustaceans. He has a special appreciation for the evolution of Marine Life, & spends much of his time researching the topic. The Order Trilobita is a major point of interest for him, as he is currently working on a book duo-logy on the subject. His fascination stems from the sheer diversity of the order, & how they have filled practically every biological niche a marine invertebrate can have. Although he doesn’t collect the fossils of Trilobites currently, he wishes to begin collecting them. As a young man, he began his journey in writing when he read fantasy novels from series such as the Narnia Series by CS Lewis, & J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Ring novels. This gave him an appreciation for fantasy novels, & would eventually lead to him beginning his own Fantasy Trilogy, the Sage of Mirria. It also led to him beginning his own Web Comic series. His first series of illustrations about trilobites was an experiment, & something he found that he enjoyed. Since then, he has published approximately 48 portraits, & drawn 372 individual trilobites. He enjoys doing both black & white, & colored portraits of them. He has done many portraits of cephalopods as well, with an ongoing series of illustrations about them. His creative process involves physically drawing something in line art, scanning it & adding color digitally. Although he primarily does drawing, he has experimented with oil painting, sculpting, & watercolors. The Siren Lord began his webcomic series on November 24th, 2022. It publishes a new page almost every weekday, & maintains a very consistent schedule. Prior to publishing the first book, he wrote the entire overarching plot, background, & the both of the other books in the trilogy. As of 2024, he is working on his Trilobite Duology. He has already begun working on the first book, & is making steady progress. The first book is to discuss the evolution & biology of the group, as well as their impact on humans.  He intends to make the book 300 to 600 pages. The second book will be a field guide about each genus in the Trilobita class, with comprehensive illustrations. As a final note, he wishes to say “If you're an artist always believe in yourself, while others may never believe in you without self-confidence you'll never make it far. Also don't be afraid to practice a lot. I do so.”. For all of those interested in his books, & webcomic, we have attached the links to those below. Directories / Credits The Siren Lord, https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/saga-of-mirria-sylvian-macourek/1144133299?ean=9798856344003, https://www.deviantart.com/thesirenlord. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Caribbean Reef Octopus Of Nevis, Saint Kitts & Nevis (Octopus Briareus) This month's article series will discuss... The Antillean Isle of Nevis! Nevis is an island that exists in the Caribbean. It is a part of the country known as Saint Kitts & Nevis. Nevis is the smaller of the 2 islands that are from the country of Saint Kitts & Nevis. It is a part of the lesser Antilles. It is a part of the archipelago group known as the Leeward Islands. Saint Nevis is approximately 383.31 Nautical / Marine miles from its closest point to mainland South America, specifically the country of Venezuela. It is also approximately 1128.85 Nautical / Marine Miles from the State of Florida, United States Of America. The island is well known for its beautiful beaches & high amount of exotic marine life. The island is extremely marine biodiverse due to its placement in Venezuela. You see, it is far enough away that Venezuelan vicious Creatures such as caiman cannot swim up the coast easily. This makes it a sort of haven for certain species to escape. One of these species is known as the Caribbean Reef Octopus. The Caribbean reef octopus lives in the waters of the Caribbean, primarily around Saint Nevis & Kitts, & Guadeloupe. They are incredibly It is usually found throughout the shallower oceanic areas due to there being lots of food in these areas. It can often be seen lounging about coral reefs or swimming. They often are also seen hunting in coral reefs very often. They are incredibly intelligent & beautiful creatures. They are not invasive to this area in any way. They are incredibly big contributors to the ecosystem due to them being the prey for many larger animals such as sharks. They are not poisonous in any capacity & usually will not harm humans unless extremely provoked. However, they are venomous. They are incredibly sweet & kind creatures, they can even show affection to humans. This will be discussed more thoroughly throughout the article. In this article, we will discuss the life of the Caribbean Reef Octopus, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the Caribbean Reef Octopus, the distribution of the Caribbean Reef Octopus, & finally the scientific detailings of the Caribbean Reef Octopus. With that being said let us delve into this tropical creature of paradise. The Life Of The Caribbean Reef Octopus The Caribbean Reef Octopus was first discovered by the British Mollusca researcher Guy Coburn Robson. He first described this species in 1929. It was first published in the book: A Monograph of the Recent Cephalopoda. Based on the collections in the British Museum, Natural History By Guy Coburn Robson. The mantle of the Caribbean Reef Octopus is incredibly large. It is much larger than many other species, sitting at up to 23.622 inches (60 centimeters) long. It weighs approximately 3.3 pounds (1.49685 kilograms) on average. The life span of a Caribbean Reef Octopus is approximately 1 year & 3 months. It often lands between 1 year & 1 year & a half. Cephalopods in general are incredibly smart. They are able to distinguish between emotions of themselves & other octopi. They are able to feel affection & even love for certain humans. They have been witnessed exhibiting signs of enjoying being pet. They are also able to distinguish between humans. At one point, an octopus was seen to use the past actions of multiple caretakers to make decisions of whether to attack them or not. They are also able to hold a grudge. Oftentimes, if one particular human does something bad to the octopus, the octopus will never forget this action. Octopi are very psychologically aware. They may not be very social, but they are capable of synchronizing hunting. They will make sounds to get other octopi to help them kill something, then spill the food. They also have advanced eyesight which helps them hunt. It is unknown how long this species in particular has existed for. They are relatively solitary creatures unless it comes to mating. They will often build dens & have stable housing, they are not migratory creatures. They are rather territorial with these dens going as far as committing homicide to keep their den from being invaded. Their primary diet consists of Caribbean Spiny Lobster, various crabs, various shrimp, & shellfish. They do practice cannibalism & will consume each other if given the opportunity. Their metabolism is relatively high due to their large size. They are nocturnal hunters & primarily hunt at nighttime. Their stomach capacity is unknown, the amount they eat per day is also unknown however it is most likely between 3% & 6% of their body mass. Their primary hunters are shark species & stingrays. The speed at which they may swim is unknown. They swim via jet propulsion. Octopi sleep by narrowing their eyes & then growing pale. They will then sleep for approximately 2 hours for every 12 hours they are alive. However there are 2 different types of sleep an octopus may have, these are known as quiet sleep & active sleep. During quiet sleep, the octopus is completely motionless & will not move, this is the normal sleeping practice. Active sleep is when the octopus is still somewhat awake however it is resting. This is characterized by changes in skin color & texture as well as flicker movements of the eyes, contracting suckers on the arms & finally muscle twitches on the body. The Caribbean Reef Octopus does not exhibit just one physical appearance. They can take on a multitude of different colors & skin textures. The way that they do this will be discussed later in the article. Caribbean reef octopi are typically bright green & blue, with reddish-brown speckles across their mantle & tentacles. Their skin can become smooth or bumpy depending on the environment they want to blend into. They can change color & texture at will. Oftentimes, they will be seen with smooth skin. The Mating Tactics, Procedures, Cycles, & Practices Of The Caribbean Reef Octopus Caribbean reef octopi mate via sexual reproduction. They are monogamous creatures meaning they only have 1 mate. They are not hermaphroditic & cannot change genders at will. However, this is due to them having a short life span They have no known mating ritual & will simply just mate instead of doing something elaborate. The male will mount the female & reach its hectocotylus, which is the sperm-containing tentacle, into her oviduct, releasing its sperm to cover the eggs. Alternatively, it will take off its hectocotylus entirely & give it to the female so that she can store his arm in her mantle & use it when the eggs are ready to be internally fertilized. The males die several months after fertilizing the eggs, while the females die shortly after laying the eggs. It is unknown how they call for these mates. They do appear to have specific breeding months, with those being February & March. However, mating is a year-round activity. Females can lay up to 200,000 eggs. It is unclear as to how many of these survive. The Gestation period lasts approximately 65 days. The approximate age of sexual maturity for females is 5 months to 7 months. The age of sexual maturity for males is unknown. Caribbean reef octopuses hatch roughly 65 to 80 days before hatching, they are 15 millimeters at birth with arms of 7-9 millimeters & a mantle averaging 5.5 millimeters. They exit the egg about 15 seconds after they first crack it. These octopuses emerge with the appearance of small adults. Caribbean reef octopuses grow at a rapid rate, increasing their weight by approximately 5% a day. Once octopuses have sexually matured at five months, they will continue to grow and exhibit indeterminate growth. By the time they die they will weigh one-third of the amount of food they have eaten throughout their life. 2 weeks after laying eggs, the female will reduce her diet by 50%. The Distribution Of The Caribbean Reef Octopus The Caribbean Reef Octopus is primarily found in the Caribbean. It is found as far south as northern South America & on the Atlantic side of the Panama Canal. It is found as north as southern Florida. They are not found on the Pacific-facing side of The Panama Canal. They are often found in shallow coral reefs. This is 1 meter to 20 meters deep. The reason they live in that specific area is due to there being a large quantity of food there. They also need to build dens, which is substantially easier in coral reefs than in sandy barren areas. These areas overall provide a variety of appealing conditions which make the perfect environment for this organism. The Scientific Detailings Of The Caribbean Reef Octopus Octopi are incredibly unique for many reasons, however the main reason is their uncharacteristically high intelligence. This is not a trait seen very often in marine or land species. They have an incredibly complex neurological structure. They do not have a central brain as we think of it. They have individual systems for each tentacle. This is why if you chop off an octopus tentacle it will still move afterwards. They can also feel extreme amounts of pain. They can also feel emotions towards octopi & other humans. If they are wronged they may hold a grudge against people or other octopi until they die. However, they may also become emotionally attached to humans. They may feel differently about certain humans. They can recognize human faces to a certain extent. Octopi in general have been seen solving mazes, & when presented with these mazes later they will remember the route out. This means they are able to reconstruct the situation in their mind in a way that pictures the layout of the maze & the way out. They do have individual personalities & unique traits as well. This is a sign to not doubt octopi intelligence at all. A contributing factor as to why this is is that they share a similar genetic sequence with humans, this genetic sequence regulates learning. The image above illustrates their anatomy & the placement of their organs. They have a total of 3 hearts much like squid or cuttlefish. They have 2 branchial hearts which pump blood to their gills. At this point, the blood will take in oxygen & be sent off to the systemic heart. After this, the systemic heart will pump the blood all over the body. Their blood is also blue instead of red. The reason for this is due to a copper-rich protein known as Hemocyanin existing in their blood. The existence of this protein in their blood causes their blood to be blue. This is very similar to the iron in Hemoglobin in human blood. This blue blood exists in all cephalopods. This blue blood can be used as a pigment if used properly. They do not have bones or any hard tissue besides their beaks. These beaks are located in the center base of all of the tentacles. They are able to fit through almost any hole that their beaks will fit through due to their purely soft tissue. The exact chemicals that their venom contains are unknown. They do use venom occasionally to force their prey to pass out, however they will not use this on humans. This species of octopus has 7 rows of teeth, however this is not as commonly found in other species. Their phylum is known as Mollusca. Mollusca is the 2nd largest phylum, just behind Arthopoda. Mollusca is however the largest marine phylum as it comprises approximately 23% of all documented marine species. The three most commonly found features defining modern species categorized under mollusks are the following: a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing & excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Their class is Cephalopoda. This class includes almost all species of cuttlefish, octopi, squid, & nautilus. Their order is Octopoda. This order contains the same types of species as Cephalopoda. A universal characteristic of this order is that all species classified under this are invertebrates. Their family is Octopodidae. This family contains the majority of all documented octopus species. Their current genus is known as Octopus. Octopus is the largest known genus of octopi holding over 100 species of octopus. This genus contains nothing but Octopi. This creature's binomial name is Octopus Briareus. Directories / Credits https://www.caradonna.com/blog/meet-octopus https://octonation.com/octopedia/caribbean-reef-octopus/ https://octonation.com/caribbean-reef-octopus-facts/ https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Octopus_briareus/#behavior https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/octopuses-keep-surprising-us-here-are-eight-examples-how.html https://www.livescience.com/jumping-genes-octopus-intelligence Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

An Interview With Marine Biology Youtuber, SharkedSkooler This article is very special, as it contains an interview with a marine biology Youtuber, by the name of SharkedSkooler. Our main writer conducted an interview with SharkedSkooler on April 7th, 2024. SharkedSkooler is a relatively new marine biology YouTuber who has been active since March 5th, 2023, & has a deep fascination with marine biology. SharkedSkooler manages a popular marine biology online server, known as the Marine Enthusiasts Group. In this article, we shall be discussing our in depth interview with SharkedSkooler. With that being said, let us delve into the Contents of the Interview. The Contents Of The Interview SharkedSkooler’s passion for marine biology was sparked at a young age from programmes such as Shark Week, & oceanic video games. He began to watch documentaries about sharks, & gradually gained a great admiration & interest in Sharks & Cartilaginous Fish. He was influenced to make a channel by encouragement from his family, & from an interesting experience he had with another marine biology Youtuber. Approximately 2 years ago, SharkedSkooler decided to comment under videos about marine biology, posing as an actual shark. One day, he commented on a specific video which was on the topic of Why Sharks Attack Humans. He commented saying “Well, I'm a shark & I don't eat people. I prefer seals and big fishes." The creator soon replied by saying “Thanks Mr. Shark, I understand now. Maybe you can make videos about this?". SharkedSkooler gives direct credit to this creator for the creation of his channel. SharkedSkooler created his first video on March 5th of 2023 & continues to actively publish videos. As of April 2024, SharkedSkooler has approximately 384 subscribers, & has 10 published videos. His videos do not have a specific focus on marine biology, & he covers both prehistoric, & modern marine animals. Unfortunately, due to his studies, he does not have a set uploading schedule. He is the only person involved with the editing of videos, writing, uploading, & researching for the channel. He aims to have 500 subscribers by the end of 2024. Additionally, he aims to get monetized by YouTube, & to collaborate with larger creators as well as organizations. As a creator, & a marine biology enthusiast, he wishes to educate as many people as he is able to about marine life. SharkedSkooler wishes to pursue marine biology as a future career, & is completely determined to do so. For all those who wish to start a marine biology channel of their own, his primary advice is to study & research as much as you are able to. He recommends studying the YouTube algorithm, studying various marketing styles, studying video-making techniques, & maintaining a semi-consistent uploading schedule. For all those who wish to view his videos, & generally learn more about this creator, please visit https://youtube.com/@sharkedskooler. Directories / Credits SharkedSkooler, https://youtube.com/@sharkedskooler?si=1vQLtW8gcqkxOIu. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Qeqertalik, Greenland Today's article will discuss the history of Qeqertalik, Greenland. Qeqertalik is the south central part of Greenland. It is shaped somewhat like a square & is an independent administrative zone. Greenland is an island off the coast of northern Canada which is owned by the European country of Denmark. The municipality of Qeqertalik is 538.26 Nautical / Marine miles (619.418546 miles or 996.85752 kilometers) from mainland Canada at its closest points. Qeqertalik is also 1298.35 Nautical / Marine miles (1494.114496 miles or 2404.5442 kilometers from the continental United States. This does not include the islands of Canada, this is only the continental areas of Canada. Including islands, Greenland is a mere 12.34 Nautical / Marine Miles (14.200618 miles or 22.85368 kilometers) from Canadian territory. The indigenous peoples of Greenland collectively call Greenland Kalaallit Nunaat. This translates into “The land of the people”. However, that translation cannot be 100% confirmed. Qeqertalik is one of the smallest municipalities of Greenland, it is shaped rectangularly. Greenland has a strange history with many different European countries, mainly Denmark. Qeqertalik was established as an individual administrative zone in 2018. The last census conducted in Qeqertalik was in the year 2020, it showed that there were 6,340 inhabitants. The administrative zone has a total of 24,100 square miles (62418.713 square kilometers). It is unclear how much of this area is ocean. Qeqertalik includes Disko Bay, which is a small bay in the western seaside portion of the zone. There are many islands in this bay, however the largest of them is known as Disko Island or, Qeqertarsuaq. It is the second largest island of Greenland. Disko Bay is primarily used for Halibut & shrimp fishing. A common dialect spoken here is Kalaallisut. It is the west Greenland dialect of Greenlandic. Greenlandic is one of the primary languages along with Danish. The highest elevation of Qeqertalik is along the mountain range known as the Knud Rasmussen range. It was named after the Greenlandic polar explorer, Knud Rassmussen. The Zone’s Official website is https://qeqertalik.gl/. However the website is in Danish so they do not have a translation of the website. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Qeqertalik, The known aboriginals of Qeqertalik, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Qeqertalik, & finally a segment on the Greenlandic economy. With that being said, let us delve into the history of Qeqertalik. The Documented History Of Qeqertalik Please note that we will only be discussing the history of Qeqertalik. Not Greenland in its entirety. This will not discuss any other areas of Greenland. Before Colonization B.C Era Artifacts from Paleo-Inuit cultures have been discovered around Disko Bay. The earliest artifact that was found dates back to around 2500 B.C. From approximately 2500 B.C. to 800 B.C., Qeqertalik & the majority of southwest Greenland were inhabited by people of the Saqqaq culture. The majority of the archaeological remains which were from the Saqqaq-period980s have been around or near Disko Bay. This includes the site of Saqqaq, after which the culture is named. It is unknown what the culture called themselves. It is unknown how this culture fell as well. Other than this, it is unclear what happened during the B.C. years around Qeqertalik. Early Norse Settlement Era Erik the Red may have explored areas of Qeqertalik. This is unconfirmed as he sailed in from Iceland due to him being in exile for committing homicide. Iceland is toward the southeastern side rather than the southwestern, so it most likely would have been on his journey to northern Greenland. No Norse Bay settlements have been mentioned as being around Disko bay of Qeqertalik. Late Norse Settlement Era During the Late Norse Settlement Era, Disko Bay was used for Whaling & walrus hunting purposes. However, the whalers would usually be from far southern areas. There were no real settlements other than mythical-like small whaling & walrus hunting sites. They would also hunt polar bears & narwhals there in the winter. They would use the whales for fat & oil, the walruses for their ivory tusks & bones, the polar bears for their thick fur hides, & the narwhals for their mythical like canine. They would make clothes & other things with these resources & then export them. Most often they would be exported back to the south. It is unclear exactly the years this took place, but it took place mainly in the 12th & 13th century. However, during the 14th century, these sites began declining. The majority of Norse settlements in Greenland began on a decline from this point on. This decline corresponded with a large drop in temperatures in Greenland. It also corresponded with the decrease in the value of ivory in Europe. This drop caused agricultural failure, which caused famine. During the early 16th century, the last few Norse people left this area of Greenland. This left only the Inuit tribes in this area of Greenland. After Norwegian Colonization After being settled by Norsemen in the 980’s, it was submitted to be under the rule of the Norwegian Kingdom in 1263. It officially became a crown dependency in 1263. Denmark & Sweden entered the Kalmar Union with Norway in 1397 under the Queen of Norway, & Norway's overseas territories including Greenland later became subject to the king in Copenhagen. In 1408, there was one of the first mentions of Norwegian settlers. It is unclear where exactly in Greenland they went. However, Qeqertalik would have been especially interesting for its abundance of natural resources. The last marriage record between a Norse man & woman was also in 1408. Following the establishment of an independent Sweden, Norway & Denmark were reorganized into a polity now known as Denmark-Norway in 1536/1537 & the nominal Norwegian sovereignty over Greenland was taken up by the new union. Around this time, the last remaining Norse people disappeared leaving only the Inuit tribes. Despite the decline of European settlement & the loss of contact, Denmark–Norway continued to maintain its claim to the lordship of Greenland. After Danish Re-Colonization In the 1720’s a Lutheran Dano-Norwegian known as Hans Egede started a missionary campaign to convert the local Inuit tribes into Lutheranism. He also wanted to erect small colonies around. However, scurvy was rampant & killed approximately 75% of all people brought from Denmark-Norway. Not all of these colonies' documentations were released to the public domain & a few of them were quite close-by, by in modern Inday Semersooq. It is possible that one of these colonies could have existed or temporarily existed in parts of southern Qeqertalik. As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden at the 1814 Treaty Of Kiel. The colonies, including Greenland, remained in Danish possession. The 19th century saw increased interest in the region on the part of polar explorers & scientists like William Scoresby & Greenland-born Knud RassmussRasmussenan. At the same time, the colonial elements of the earlier trade-oriented Danish presence in Greenland expanded. In the year of 1861, the first Greenlandic Language journal was founded. This would go on to become one of the only Greenlandic Language journals to exist. Danish law still applied to only the Danish settlers. At the turn of the 19th century, the northern part of Greenland was still sparsely populated; only scattered hunting inhabitants were found there. The reason for this is due to it being extremely cold & remote. Another reason is that the majority of the natural resources have not been discovered yet. During that century, however, Inuit families immigrated from British North America to settle in these areas. The last group from what later became Canada arrived in 1864. They mostly settled in the north, however, a few families did go to the Qeqertalik region or what would become the surrounding areas of the Qeqertalik region. Modernly, there is documentation that some of these families do still make up a decent amount of the population of north Greenland. The Released Data Of Greenlands Place In World War 2 The Aboriginal Tribes Of Qeqertalik The Saqaqq Tribe Of Indigenous Peoples The Saqqaq culture is what is known as a Paleo-Eskimo culture in southern Greenland. No other cultures have appeared to live in Greenland continuously longer than the Saqqaq. Extremely little is known about this tribe of indigenous people. It seems that they appeared in Greenland in approximately 2500 B.C & disappeared around 800 B.C. They were not found in northern Greenland or Canada. What is known is that the Saqqaq culture came in two phases, the main difference between the two is that the newer phase adopted the use of sandstone. This was a material that was only found in southern Greenland. It is found in other areas of the world however it is not found in the north. The younger phase of the Saqqaq culture coincides with the oldest phase of the Dorset culture. 6 Saqqaq individuals were found buried on the island of Qeqertasussuk. They were believed to have been buried between 3000 B.C & 1900 B.C. The Saqqaq people are believed to have originated in Siberia & migrated from Russia to Alaska. They most likely came to Alaska around the year 4000 B.C. Then through Canada to Greenland. The Most Destructive Natural & Man-Caused Disasters Of Greenland No. 1 Narsaq Massacre Of 1990 The Narsaq Massacre Of 1990 occurred at a party in Narsaq which is in the municipality of Kujalleq, Greenland. The Narsaq massacre was a mass shooting that occurred on January 1st, 1990. This shooting caused 7 fatalities & 1 critical injury. The weapon involved was a Remington Model 552 which is a semiautomatic rifle. The man who committed this grievous act is known as Abel Klemmensen. The Remington Model 552 is also not manufactured in Greenland so it is most likely that Klemmensen smuggled this weapon from the United States where it is manufactured. The reason that this happened is because Abel Klemmensen got involved in a dispute with his close friend for taking the side of a girl he was angry at. It is unclear exactly why Klemmensen was angry at this woman. Feeling betrayed, he then went home & later returned to the party with a semiautomatic rifle with the intention to kill all attendants of the party & commit suicide after committing this act. The disgruntled perpetrator then opened fire in a boarding house complex in Ungbo, being used as a club, & he aimed for people's heads. In two rooms on the first floor of the makeshift club, he shot three women & four men, including his brother, who was wounded by a shot through the upper cheek. While he was walking downstairs to the living room he shot a fourth woman. He had fired eleven rounds & all of his victims were shot in the head. Afterward, Klemmensen went home to sleep instead of committing suicide, and he was then taken into police custody. All people who were killed were of Inuit origin. The man in custody was identified as an 18-year-old student who confessed to the killings, said the police inspector Lars Heilman. The suspect's name was later released as Abel Klemmensen. The crime scene was described as "gruesome" by the police photographers. A team of police forensic scientists traveled to Narsaq from Copenhagen to investigate the killings, but due to heavy snowfall were severely delayed. Those who were killed as a result of this massacre were identified as three men, aged 18, 33 & 34, & four women, aged 18, 19, 26 & 29. The wounded man was only identified as a "22-year-old man in stable condition with head wounds". The identities of his victims were later released as Henrik Barnabassen, aged 34, Kathrine Broberg, aged 18, Paarnannguaq Godtfredsen, aged 26, Jakob Grønvold aged 18, Tove Isaksen, aged 19, Bibiane Kristiansen, aged 29 & finally Egede Tittusen, aged 33. The wounded man was identified as Kristian Klemmensen, aged 22. The wounded man was Abel’s brother. Klemmensen was later diagnosed with Narcissistic Personality Disorder & was sentenced to indefinite detention at a psychiatric institution in March of the following year. He is still imprisoned to this day. No. 2 1962 Nuuk Catalina Crash On May 12th of 1962 Eastern Provincial Airways Canso amphibious aircraft which was operating for Greenlandair / Air Greenland crashed into the ocean off the coast of Nuuk. This caused the plane to sink before they could reach safety. The aircraft caused a total of 15 fatalities. There were a total of 6 survivors. Initially, it was thought that the plane crashed directly into the water however it was later revealed that the plane crashed into debris that were on the water. It crashed near the Godthab Harbor. A technical investigation concluded that the nose wheel doors had not closed properly probably due to mechanical failure. With a gap of 70 millimeters, the doors were torn off on landing letting water into the nose wheel bay, the pressure of water caused a bulkhead to fail and the aircraft to sink. No. 3 1968 Thule Air Base Crash B-52 The Thule Air Base Crash of 1968 occurred on the 21st of January. It occurred off the coast of Greenland near the Thule air base in north Baffin Bay. The aircraft was carrying four B28FI thermonuclear bombs on a Cold War so-called “Chrome Dome” alert mission over northern Baffin Bay when a cabin fire forced the crew to abandon the aircraft before they could carry out an emergency at Thule Air Base. The cause of this cabin fire was not named. Six crew members were ejected safely, but one who did not have an ejection seat was killed while trying to bail out. The bomber crashed onto floating ice sheets known as Sea Ice in North Star Bay. This the conventional explosives aboard the aircraft to detonate & the nuclear payload to rupture and disperse, resulting in extreme radioactive contamination of the area. The radioactive materials that dispersed from the aircraft are Uranium-238, Uranium-235, Uranium-234, Plutonium-239, Plutonium-240, Plutonium-241 Americium-241, & Tritium. There is a much more detailed Wikipedia entry known as https://en.m.wikipedia.org. It includes the operation to clean up this radioactive material & the harrowing survival story of the remaining crew members. It also includes the political scandal that arose as a result of this incident. The Economic State Of Greenland As A Whole Greenlands' economy is stable as of 2024. Some characteristics of Greenlands' economy are that it is incredibly small & is vulnerable as it largely depends on Foreign trade. Their currency is the Danish Krone. The fiscal year of Greenland is the calendar year. They are classified as a high-income economy. There is a total population of 56,367, & a labor force of 26,840 people. This would mean that a total of 47.616513208083% of the population is in the labor force. Their current nominal GDP per capita is 48,296$ USD. This is approximately 337,487.64 Danish Krone. Their GDP by sector is 15.9% agriculture, 10.1% industry, & 73.9% services. The unemployment rate is 9.1% of Greenland or 5129.397 people. The most prominent industries of Greenland are currently fish processing, Oil, gold, niobium, tantalite, uranium, iron, diamond mining, handicrafts, hides, skins, & finally small shipyards. Approximately 91% of all commercial exports out of Greenland are fish of fish products. Their main export partners are Denmark (88.5%) & Iceland (4.4%). The gross revenue of Greenland in 2016 was 1.719 billion USD. The average cost for a 1 bedroom 1 bathroom apartment in the city center is approximately 5,701 Danish Krone or approximately 815.84 USD. The average cost for a 1 bedroom 1 bathroom apartment outside of the city center is approximately 5,095.81 Danish Krone or 729.23 USD. Tourism does not affect the housing market of Greenland. Greenland also does not have a publicly traded stock market. Directories / Credits https://www.mindat.org/loc-305594.html Gunman held after 5 die in Eskimo village shooting spree, The Deseret News 7 Die in Greenland's Bloodiest Mass Shooting; Suspect Held, Los Angeles Times Danish Student's Rampage Leaves 7 Dead, St. Louis Post-Dispatch Ingen prøveløsladelse til Abel, Sermitsiaq Ingen prøveløsladelse til syv-dobbelt morder, Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa https://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/country_result.jsp?country=Greenland https://www.numbeo.com/property-investment/country_result.jsp?country=Greenland https://www.britannica.com/place/Greenland/History https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/h/History_of_Greenland.htm Diamond, Jared (2005). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Viking. ISBN 978-0-14-303655-5. Seaver, Kristen A. (1996). The Frozen Echo. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3161-4. Grove, Jonathan (2009). "The place of Greenland in medieval Icelandic saga narrative". Journal of the North Atlantic. Special Volume 2: Norse Greenland: Selected Papers of the Hvalsey Conference 2008: 30–51. doi:10.3721/037.002.s206. S2CID 163032041. Archived from the original on 2012-04-11. Kendrick, T.D. (2012) [1930]. A History of the Vikings. Courier. ISBN 978-0-486-12342-4. Hreinsson, Viðar, ed. (1997). The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, Including 49 Tales. Reykjavík: Leifur Eiríksson. ISBN 978-9979929307. U.S. National Museum of Natural History (2000). Fitzhugh, William W.; Ward, Elisabeth I. (eds.). Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga. Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 978-1560989707. Gulløv, Hans Christian, ed. (2005). Grønlands forhistorie. Gyldendal: National Museum of Denmark. ISBN 978-87-02-01724-3. Greenland during the Cold War. Danish & American security policy 1945–1968. Copenhagen: Danish Institute of International Affairs (DUPI). 1997-01-17. ISBN 978-87-601-6922-9. LCCN 97161960. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Marine Hall Of Distinction: Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates. Ruth Deborah Gates was one of the world’s foremost experts on coral ecology, & the effects of ocean acidification on coral. She founded the Gates Coral Laboratory, & has innovated astonishing techniques regarding coral conservation. Her techniques involved figuring out what exactly caused corals to survive stress, & genetically amplifying the gene that caused it to survive. She was also the director of the Hawai’i Institute for Marine Biology, located on Coconut Island.    According to her testimony, she has a deep passion for the field, & has had it since she was an adolescent. In addition to her career as a scientist, marine biologist, & laboratory director, she has done quite a lot of public speaking, mentorship, & working on documentaries. She & her work were featured in the 2017 Emmy-winning documentary “Chasing Coral”. In this article, we shall discuss the Education & Formative Years Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates, The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates & the Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honorables Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates. With that being said, let us delve into the life of one of the most well-versed coral biologists of the 21st Century. The Education & Formative Years Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates Ruth Deborah Gates was born on March 28th, 1962. She was born in Akrotiri, which is an area controlled by the British on the island of Cyprus. She was born to John Amos Gates, a Royal British Airforce Intelligence Officer, & Muriel Peel Gates, a physiotherapist. With her father in the military, she was always moving around as a child. For her education, she was sent to a boarding school in Kent, England. Her intense fascination with the ocean & coral biology was always present, however, it truly began to blossom during her university years. She enrolled & studied at the esteemed Newcastle University, & earned a Bachelor of Science in Marine Biology Biology. Graduating in 1984, she went on a diving trip to the West Indies to study coral. On this trip, she became absolutely enraptured by them. Soon after, in 1985, she moved to the West Indies to study these corals. She would get her doctorate in Marine Biology in the year 1990, from the same university. Her thesis was on the subject of Seawater temperature & algal-cnidarian symbiosis. The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates Her first large research project was about coral bleaching events in Jamaica. Soon after, she would conduct research at the University Of California, Los Angeles, & the University of Hawai’i. She officially joined the University of Hawai’i in 2003. It is here where she studied how coral reefs function, & what made some corals survive high temperatures. In the year 2013, the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation offered 10,000$ to anyone or any group who could offer the most promising proposal to mitigate the effects of ocean acidification. Gates & another scientist, Madeline Van Oppen, a scientist with the Australian Institute of Marine Science, rose to the challenge. They managed to develop highly resilient coral strains, & won the award. Along with the 10,000 dollars, the foundation granted them a 4 million dollar grant, with the long-term goal of developing a stock of coral strains that can replace certain dying coral reefs of the world. Despite criticism of the logistics, & financial support required for such undertakings, the scientist persevered. In 2014, her brother, Timothy Gates, introduced her to Robin Burton, who would later become her wife. The pair would be in September of 2018. & remained married until Gate’s passing. In 2015, founded & directed the Gates Coral Laboratory, at the Hawai’i Institute of Marine Biology. She would direct the laboratory for 3 more years, until her unfortunate passing. Gates & her team hosted the first coral restoration conference at the Hawai’i Institute Of Marine Biology in 2017, which brought together some of the world's best coral biologists to discuss coral restoration. Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates passed away at the age of 56, on October 25th in Kailua, Hawai’i. She passed at Castle Hospital. She passed away due to complications from a surgery related to diverticulitis. Purportedly, she also had cancer that had spread to her brain. Throughout her life, she enjoyed karate, & earned a third-degree black belt in it. She had a deep respect for the martial art, so much so that she started a small school for it in Hawai’i. Additionally, she learned how to remodel homes, & mastered the art of cooking. Throughout her career, she was always accessible to the public, & did a lot of public speaking & a few interviews. The super corals that she engineered will have an incredible impact on coral ecosystems, as well as humans. Her contributions to coral reef biology will not be forgotten, & her contributions will have a long-lasting impact on the coral reefs of our world. The Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honourables Of Ruth Deborah Gates Achievement No. 1: She Founded The Gates Coral Laboratory, which is still in operation at the time of publishing. Achievement No. 2: She was awarded the Regents Medal for Excellence in Research. Achievement No. 3: She engineered super corals that can survive extremely high temperatures, along with scientist Madeline Van Oppen. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “In Memoriam: Ruth D. Gates”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the University of Hawai’i. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://research.hawaii.edu/noelo/in-memoriam-ruth-d-gates/ Citation No. 2: “Ruth Gates, Who Made Saving Coral Reefs Her Mission, Is Dead at 56”, Written By Katharine Q. Seeyle, & Published on November 5th, 2018. Published by the New York Times. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/05/obituaries/ruth-gates-dead-marine-biologist-who-championed-coral.html Citation No. 3: “Ruth D. Gates (1962-2018)”, Written by Peter J. Edmunds, & Doctor M. Weis, & Published on December 10th, 2018. Published by Springer Nature. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0763-4 Citation No. 4: “Ruth Gates Obituary” Written by Barbara Brown, & Published on November 22nd, 2018. Published by The Guardian. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://amp.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/22/ruth-gates-obituary Citation No. 5: “Ruth Gates, renowned coral scientist & conservation advocate, dies at 56”, Written by Christie Wilcox & Published on October 31st, 2018. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/ruth-gates-renowned-coral-scientist-and-conservation-advocate-dies-at-56/2018/10/31/535ca9da-dc73-11e8-b732-3c72cbf131f2_story.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Qeqertalik, Greenland Today's article will discuss the oceans surrounding the Greenlandic state of Qeqertalik. Qeqertalik is the south central part of Greenland. It is shaped somewhat like a square & is an independent administrative zone. Greenland is an island off the coast of northern Canada which is owned by the European country of Denmark. The indigenous peoples of Greenland collectively call Greenland Kalaallit Nunaat. This roughly translates into “The land of the people”, However, that translation cannot be 100% confirmed. Qeqertalik is one of the smallest municipalities of Greenland, it is shaped rectangularly. It is an incredibly unique & diverse marine due to it being rather untouched by most humans & due to the abundance of natural resources. The municipality of Qeqertalik is 538.26 Nautical / Marine miles (619.418546 miles or 996.85752 kilometers) from mainland Canada at its closest points. Qeqertalik is also 1298.35 Nautical / Marine miles (1494.114496 miles or 2404.5442 kilometers from the continental United States. This does not include the islands of Canada, this is only the continental areas of Canada. Including islands, Greenland is a mere 12.34 Nautical / Marine Miles (14.200618 miles or 22.85368 kilometers) from Canadian territory. Due to Greenland's placement, it is often assumed that Greenland does not have very exciting marine life. It is also assumed that Greenland doesn’t have a diverse marine ecosystem. However, Greenland in fact does have many marine animals that live around the isle. One of the best examples of creatures that live around Qeqertalik in particular are narwhals which are found in very few other parts of the world. Not only does it have diverse fauna, but it has many unique strains of algae found around Qeqertalik. However, the majority of these marine species are incredibly hard to observe. This will be discussed throughout the article. In this article we will not be discussing all of Greenland's oceans, we will only be discussing the specific oceans around Qeqertalik. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of the marine resources of Qeqertalik. With that being said, let us delve into the frigid waters of Qeqertalik. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Qeqertalik The average salinity in the waters surrounding Qeqertalik is 33.75 parts per thousand on average at any given time. The lowest measured salinity is 33 parts per thousand & the highest measured salinity is 34.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. Greenland sits in the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean has the lowest salinity out of all existing oceans. This makes the existence of brine pools or salty deposits of water very unlikely. There are no ongoing factors that would contribute to the Salinity level being rapidly changed. The water temperature of Qeqertalik is found on a plethora of websites but the easiest one to navigate is https://www.tideschart.com. This contains both the water temperature & tidal charts. Due to Qeqertaliks' placement, the tides usually never get over 12.1391 feet tall (3.7 meters). However, for the Greenlandic Sea, the tide is not the same. Instead having an average high tide of 14.4357 feet (4.4 meters). These waves are usually the reason for ice packs not being near shore. The reason for that is due to these waves destroying & breaking apart the ice packs. The highest tide is usually the second tide of the day. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine miles of Qeqertalik, is 1640.4 feet (499.99392 meters) deep. There is also somewhat of a current around Qeqertalik. This current flows to northern Greenland however it is extremely weak. There is also no riptide to the point where it would be dangerous to any swimmers. Swimming is not a common activity as it is extremely cold even in the summer months. There are not very many recreational marine activities that take place around Qeqertalik. The most popular recreational activity is to go out commercial sailing to look for marine animals. Water pollution is not very bad as most tourists don’t go to Qeqertalik & most boats do not pass through here. Most of the oceanic floor consists of mud, rock, & occasionally sand. There are hard coral reefs however those are off the coast of southern Greenland. There are no known coral reefs around Qeqertalik. However, this may change in the future. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Qeqertalik Ice Sleets Ice sheets are thick sheets of ice that are found offshore. They are usually not permanent fixtures & will often break apart after a while. This is a common place for animals to congregate & breed. A good example is walruses, as they often are seen congregating on ice sleets. These are also common places for animals to give live birth. These sleets are found on shore & are often between 1 foot & 5 feet thick. Rock Tunnels & Formations These types of ecological systems are the majority of the underwater shelter for fish or squid. These usually consist of large underwater tunnels or small rocks that are often burrowed into. These systems often function as fish nurseries, breeding grounds, hunting grounds, & living spaces for animals. Seagrass meadows are often found nearby as well. These formations are usually found between 15-300 feet (4.572 to 91.44 meters) deep. Hard Coral Reefs Hard coral reefs have been found off the coast of Cape Desolation, this makes the possibility of hard coral reefs around Qeqertalik quite high. However, this has never been proven. Individual coral stocks have been found however actual reefs have not been found around Qeqertalik. If these coral reefs were to exist they would have hard limestone exoskeletons. There is only 1 known species of cold water coral that was found at the Cape Desolation coral reef. This species was Lophelia Pertusa, also known as stone coral. This would mean that the supposed coral reefs at Qeqertalik would most likely only have stone coral. The Documented Marine Flora Of Qeqertalik There is only 1 known species of seagrass that is found around Qeqertalik. This species of seagrass is known as Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass). This seagrass grows in many places around Qeqertalik & Greenland. It also weakens the current & prevents water erosion. It prevents water erosion by not allowing the water to flow as quickly. The eelgrass acts as a sort of buffer against the ground. There are also various species of algae that bloom on glaciers & ice sleets. These are known as Ice algae. However, the actual species of these algae have yet to have been released to the public domain. These algae blooms are absolutely horrible for the environment. The reason for that is that they are rapidly speeding up the rate at which these glaciers & ice sleets melt. The algae does this by causing the glacier to need more solar energy to sustain the algae, which in turn causes the glaciers to melt. This type of algae is known as Ice algae, not Glacier Algae. Glacier algae are for surface snow environments, not sea Ice environments. It is unknown which one of these is present, or if they all are present. Other than the aforementioned examples, there are very few other marine flora species, if any. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Qeqertalik There are very few types of marine Fauna found around Qeqertalik. The few species that are found have extremely specialized features that allow them to survive. Most marine creatures who are found around here have blubber or a high-fat diet which makes them larger. This would provide them with insulation that is much needed. For the sake of this article, we will not be counting polar bears, or water birds on the list. This is due to the fact that they are not mostly or fully aquatic. There is a particularly high density of shrimp around this area. This attracts many species looking for prey, which in turn gives a high density of those species. These species are seals. There are many different species of seals around Greenland & this can be attributed to the high density of shrimp. The most prominent marine species of Qeqertalik are the following: Monodon Monoceros (Narwhal), Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whale), Orcinus Orca (Orca / Killed Whale), Phoca Hispada (Ringed seal), Phoca Groenlandica (Saddleback Seal), Phoca Vitulina, (Harbour seal), Gadus Morhua (Atlantic cod), Salmo Salar (Atlantic salmon), Salvelinus alphinus (Arctic char), Hippoglossus Hippoglossus (Atlantic Halibut), Reinhardtius Hippoglossoides (Greenland Halibut), Sebastes Marinus (Rose Fish), Pandalus Borealis (Greenland Shrimp) & finally Anarhichas Lupus (Seawolf). How The Marine Resources Of Qeqertalik Were Used & How It Affected The Oceans The most common use of the marine resources of Qeqertalik is fishing. Often people will commercial fish around Greenland for Halibut, Salmon, & Shrimp. This affects the environment by causing population depletion of the mentioned species. This also causes certain other species such as seals, to starve. Also, the creatures that the mentioned species consume or prey upon will grow in population. This may cause an environmental crisis similar to the Crown Of Thornes issue around Tutuila, American Samoa. Directories / Credits https://www.livescience.com/43116-greenland-coral-reef-discovered.html https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00524/full Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of The North Sea This article is the ninth installment in the Ode To Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, we will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map up for analysis is an antique chart of the North Sea. The Map Itself Since this map is in English, there is no need for translation. An Analysis Of The Map This map was made originally in 1840, but it was later corrected in 1843. It was made by M. Blachford, & was sold originally by Blachford & Imray. Maps Of Antiquity is currently selling this map. This map was most certainly made in England. The map encompasses the North Sea, also known as the German Sea. The map is positioned in such a way that the coasts of the Netherlands, Denmark, France, Norway, England, Scotland, & the Shetland Islands coastal areas are all visible. This is a sailing map, so there are no reasons for any marine creature zones to be labeled. Since the map has many overlapping lines on the sea area, it is hard to tell whether any islands were left off or not. For this reason, we cannot properly assess the accuracy of this map. This map is most likely in a large collection of European maps by Blachford & Co., but we cannot tell if it is, we can only hypothesize. The map has no weather or tidal patterns displayed on the map either, due to technology at the time not being very reliable at tracking these sorts of things. There are no prominent terrestrial topographical features on the map. This map is uncolored, most likely for simplicity. This map was not made for militia use, & was most likely never used for militaristic purposes. Aside from the northern sea, the map does not Center end on any lighthouse or country in particular. Additionally, no coves are labeled on the map. There are no rapids or dangerous areas labeled directly on the map, for unknown reasons. Due to the time & location of the map making, it was most certainly made using lithography. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterward, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com. To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Greenlandic Narwhal of Qeqertalik (Monodon Monoceros) This month's article series will discuss... The Greenlandic Municipality of Qeqertalik! Qeqertalik is a Municipality on the Danish island of Greenland. It is to the westernmost areas of Greenland. Greenland exists in the Arctic Ocean being a bit east of Canada. The indigenous peoples of Greenland collectively call Greenland Kalaallit Nunaat. This translates into “The land of the people”. However, that translation cannot be 100% confirmed. Qeqertalik is one of the smallest municipalities of Greenland, it is shaped rectangularly. It is an incredibly unique & diverse marine due to it being rather untouched by most humans & due to the abundance of natural resources. The municipality of Qeqertalik is 538.26 Nautical / Marine miles (619.418546 miles or 996.85752 kilometers) from mainland Canada at its closest points. Qeqertalik is also 1298.35 Nautical / Marine miles (1494.114496 miles or 2404.5442 kilometers from the continental United States. This does not include the islands of Canada, this is only the continental Canada. Greenland is usually not a place where you think of marine creatures, however, it has a peculiar assortment of marine animals. One of the most prominent marine animals of Qeqertalik is known as the Narwhal. Believed to be a hoax at first, this creature is rather strange. The narwhal is particularly famous & distinguished due to its large protruding horn that pokes out from the middle of the narwhal's face. This large horn is the narwhal's left canine, much like a walrus tusk. This strange horn will be discussed thoroughly throughout the article. However the horn of the narwhal is not the only strange thing about it, the narwhal has a long history & took to even be recognized as a real species. Due to this & for several other reasons, this animal is arguably one of the most famous animals of the Arctic Ocean. The narwhal while found in other areas, is found in the highest density on the western coast of Greenland. In this article, we will discuss the life of the Greenlandic Narwhal, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the Greenlandic Narwhal, the distribution of the Greenlandic Narwhal & finally the scientific detailings of the Greenlandic Narwhal. With that being said, let us delve into this mysterious & mythical creature. The Life Of The Narwhal The Narwhal was discovered in 1577 by the English explorer known as Martin Frobisher. He found it while on an expedition around Northern Canada. It was originally thought to be a sea unicorn. It was first described as a species in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus, a great taxonomist. It was described in his publication “Systema Naturae”. The narwhal may grow up to be approximately 17 feet (5.1816 meters) in length, this includes the tusk. The large protruding canine grows to be on average 7.55 feet (2.30124 feet). The canine is cylindrical & has a pointed end. It is important to note that the majority of females do not have a tusk, while the majority of males do. Occasionally a male can be seen with 2 tusks. A full-grown narwhal will weigh between 2,100 pounds (952.544 kilograms) & 4,200 pounds (1905.088 kilograms). The males tend to be heavier than the females on average. The narwhal will live to be at least 25 years of age, however, the oldest narwhal on record lived to be 50 years of age. Narwhals are incredibly smart creatures as they are similar to dolphins. Their brains are also the same size as the human brain when relative to body mass. They are able to use skills & teach hunting techniques to other narwhals. Narwhals are not just able to mirror other narwhals' behaviors, they have learned how to mirror other species' behaviors. They are also able to synchronize attacks. Little is known about their emotional capacity, however in other studies with their close relatives known as dolphins, the dolphins can be seen going through grief cycles & feeling loss. Narwhals are social creatures who live in groups of 10-20 individual narwhals. They do not often appear by themselves. They are not aggressive towards humans & not aggressive towards each other, they are aggressive to fish species but that is due to the narwhal wanting to consume the fish. They also generally avoid interaction with humans. There is no evidence to suggest that Narwhals are territorial, they seem to migrate fairly often & prefer to not stay in one place. They are primarily hunted by polar bears & Orcas. However a Greenland shark has been found with the remains of a Narwhal in its stomach, it remains unclear if the narwhal was hunted purposefully or if the shark stole the narwhal from another species. The narwhals' diet largely consists of fish such as cod & halibut. However occasionally they can be seen consuming squid & shrimp. They are not cannibalistic in any capacity. The narwhal can consume up to 66 pounds (29.9371 kilograms) of food per day. They more often consume 20-25 pounds (9.07185 to 11.3398 kilograms) per day. They do not have a particularly elevated metabolism so that is not the reason for their high appetite. They do not have a particular time in which they hunt. They hunt by stabbing the fish with the canine & then consuming the fish. They can swim at up to 4.03891 miles per hour (6.499995575 kilometers per hour), which helps them catch fish with immense ease. They have a pair of short flippers that help them swim & turn in the water & their rear flukes assist with propelling them forward. The narwhal is a chunky, stocky whale with a small rounded head. They have short flippers towards the front of them & they do not have a flexible neck. Narwhals have a grey to grey-blue coloration at birth. However, throughout the narwhal's life, the narwhal will turn a light grey, when the narwhal grows very old the narwhal may look completely white. The narwhals sleep by going on the ice or halfway onto the ice to make sure they don’t drown while they sleep, & then cuddling for warmth. They do have eyelids so when the narwhal is sleeping the narwhal will close its eyes. The Mating Tactics, Practices, Procedures, & Cycles Of The Narwhal Narwhals mate via sexual reproduction. They are not hermaphroditic & cannot change sexes. However, like most mammals, some Narwhals might be born intersex. They do appear to be monogamous & they do seem to mate for life. The males will sexually mature between the ages of 8 & 10 years. The females will sexually mature between 4 to 8 years of age. The females are most fertile years before the age of 20. After that females will not have the same ease of having a calf. after They do appear to have a particular mating season, this season lasts from the middle of April through the beginning of March. Little is known about the actual mating ritual, however it is known that they mate belly to belly. Also, an attribute that will help the males find a female is the size of their horn. Scientists believe that females will prefer a narwhal that has a larger horn. This is most likely due to females just preferring larger males which usually means that the males' horns will be larger than others. They most likely mate via internal fertilization, however this remains unconfirmed. They often will mate on pack ice off shore or in the water which makes observation of their mating habits difficult. Their gestation period lasts from 13 months to 16 months, the calf will then be born in the summer of the following year. They will have children every 3 years or so. The female will only ever have a singular calf, having twin calves is incredibly rare but not impossible. This is due to the size of the calves. After the calf is born the father will not be a part of the baby's life. The calf will nurse from the mother for approximately 1 year & 6 months before leaving to hunt on its own. During the 18 month period, the baby will be taught how to hunt & will learn how to eat solid foods. It is unclear as to when exactly the baby will start eating solid foods. The mother will stop lactating afterward. The calf will then go off to join a pod on its own. The Geographical Distribution Of The Narwhal The narwhal usually sticks to the Arctic Ocean. Contrary to popular belief the narwhal is not found near Antarctica. The narwhal is found throughout northern areas of Canada such as Nunavut, it is also found throughout Greenland, Alaska & various western parts of Russia. They are also believed to be found somewhat north of the Norwegian archipelago of Spitsbergen, however, this has yet to be confirmed. The narwhal is usually found approximately 200 miles (321.869 kilometers) from shore & does not often come close to the coast. They may dive to depths over 4,500 feet (1371.6 meters) multiple times a month, which makes it incredibly hard to track them. There are approximately 80,000 narwhals left on planet Earth & we do not know everywhere narwhals are found. The not any known subspecies of the narwhal, however, this may change. The Scientific Detailings Of The Narwhal The Narwhal is a special creature for many reasons, however the most notable of those is the giant horn that it has. This horn is a canine, it is made of ivory & it looks sort of like a spiral. It is important to note that the canine is lodged in the jaw & the base of the canine is covered in flesh. Mostly only males have this horn, however, some females are documented to have it. It is significantly rarer to find a female with a horn. The males will sometimes have 2 horns or canines sticking out. This is rare, as only 1 in every 500 males will grow to have 2 horns. Only 1 female has ever been documented to have 2 horns. Through the years the horn will grow like a tree, with its rings growing up. Another remarkable thing is the brain-to-body mass ratio. It is about the same as humans which begs a lot of questions as to the intelligence of Narwhals. However incredibly little is known about them due to their geographical placement throughout the world. Learning more about the narwhal is not a large priority so most likely this will remain for many decades to come. The narwhal does not have any other teeth other than the large canine. It is not known how they consume without grinding it. They will most likely swallow the prey whole after stunning it with the horn. However, this is only a theory & has not been confirmed. Their bone structure is quite similar to a beluga whale. It is quite short, stout, & cylindrical. They are vertebrates & mammals as they lactate. Narwhals as a species have existed for approximately 1 million years. It is unknown what warranted this evolutionary trait. It was most likely a small original population & this was a gene that kept on being bred back into the species. This would cause more narwhals to keep picking up this trait until it existed in every narwhal & then so on & so forth. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity for fur or hair, & three middle ear bones.  There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Artiodactyla. which are even-toed ungulates. Species categorized under Artiodactyla are ungulates, hoofed animals which bear weight equally on two of their five toes, these toes are the third & fourth toes. The other three toes are either present, absent, vestigial, or pointing posteriorly. Their infraorder is that of Cetacea. Key characteristics of this infraorder are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size & exclusively carnivorous diet. Another characteristic is their incredible social intelligence. There are roughly 90 species categorized under Cetacea. Their family is Monodontidae. This is a cetacean family that only comprises 2 living species, those species being the Beluga whale & the Narwhal. These 2 creatures are incredibly genetically similar. Their genus is Monodon. Monodon is a genus that contains only 1 species, this species is the narwhal. This creatures Binomial name is Monodon Monoceros. The Fight To Recognize The Narwhal As A True Species That Was Not Mythical The narwhal was not originally recognized as a real species, it was seen as an actual unicorn. This was when it was first discovered in 1557. This caused a delay in studying the creature due to the animal being killed off for the horn. It was believed that the horn had magical properties which prompted the mass hunt of the narwhal in the first place. This leads to modern day society in which a shocking amount of the population still believes that the narwhal is a mythical creature. By taxonomy, however, the narwhal is recognized as an actual species & not some mythical entity. Directories / Credits https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/the-mystery-of-the-sea-unicorn https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/species-guide/narwhal/ https://animalia.bio/narwhal https://nammco.no/narwhal/#1475762140566-81d47f7a-a145 Narwhal - Oceana https://www.whalefacts.org/narwhal-facts/ https://animals.mom.com/mating-habits-narwhals-11473.html https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/size-matters-narwhals-long-tusks-help-them-find-a-mate/amp/ https://a-z-animals.com/blog/narwhal-skull-how-its-massive-tusk-connects/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Marine Hall Of Distinction: Doctor Malcolm Roy Clarke This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Malcolm Roy Clarke. Malcolm Roy Clarke is a British Malacologist, Marine Biologist, & Teuthologist. Born on October 24th, 1930, He began his career as a whale inspector for the British Navy. During this time he worked aboard ships in the Antarctic. He is most well known for his research on cephalopods, & sperm whales. He is known to have been one of the first scientists to extract squid beaks from whale carcasses, in order to study them. For the majority of the 1900s as well as part of the 2000s, he was considered to be the world's foremost expert on cephalopods, & their ecology. He is considered to be one of the founders of Cephalopod International. Dr. Clarke is regarded as one of the greatest cephalopod ecologists, recognized for his dedication & contributions. For all of his work across the fields of general marine biology, malacology, & teuthology, he was awarded a fellowship of the Royal Society. In this article, we will discuss the Early Life & Education of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke, The Career & Later Life Of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke, & The Awards, Honourables, Accomplishments, & Achievements of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke. With that being said, let us delve into this Arctic malacologist. The Early Life & Education Of Malcolm Roy Clarke Malcolm Roy Clarke was born on October 24th, 1930. He was born in Birmingham, located in the western midlands region of England. Unfortunately, absolutely nothing is known about his childhood or his parents. The Later Life & Career Of Malcolm Roy Clarke Malcolm Roy Clarke began his career as a Whale Inspector for the Royal British Navy. During his time as a Whale Inspector, he worked aboard ships in the Antarctic region. This sparked a keen interest in cetaceans, leading him to write his Ph.D. thesis on whale parasites. While working on his thesis, he realized how much information could be recovered from squid beaks if he extracted them from whales. He would go on to extract this information, & while doing so, he would innovate new sampling techniques, & different methods of testing. This would help other naturalists discover a trove of information concerning other animals. Across all available records, it is unclear which year he got his P.hd. It is also unclear whether this was before or after his marriage. In 1953, Dr. Clarke married his wife, Dorothy Clara Knight. They would go on to have a happy marriage, & have 4 children. After he finished his whale inspecting business, he decided to begin working at the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences. He worked at this institution from 1958 to 1972. In that year, he decided to switch to working at the Marine Biological Association Of The United Kingdom. Despite officially retiring in 1981, he would stay with the association until 1987. During his time at the association around 1978, he was awarded a doctorate of science.  Soon after in 1981, he was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society. He retired in the year 1981, & purchased a secondary residence in on Pico Island, Portugal. Even though he was retired, his interest in cephalopods did not wane in the slightest. He continued to study various species of squid, as well as examine specimens up close. Astonishingly, He & his wife would open a private sperm whale museum on the island in 2003. This museum is still open, & is thriving. Unfortunately, he passed away on May 10th, 2013, in his second residence on Pico Island. His dedication, & contributions to science will not be forgotten. The Awards, Achievements, Accomplishments, & Honorable Of Malcolm Roy Clarke He had a deep sea anglerfish officially named after him. The species of anglerfish is Oneirodes Clarkei. He authored over 150 scientific articles that were published across a wide array of journals. He was awarded the Fellowship of the Royal Society. He innovated multiple techniques for experimentation that would help other naturalists discover heaps of new information. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Dedication: Malcolm Clarke, his life & work”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Elsevier. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://cephalopod.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/clarke_obituary.pdf Citation No. 2: “Malcolm Roy Clarke. 24 October 1930 — 10 May 2013”, Written by Peter J. Herring, & Published on the 1st of December, 2014. Published By Royal Society Publishing. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.2014.0011 Citation No. 3: “The role of Malcolm Clarke (1930–2013) in the Azores as a scientist & educationist” ", Written By J.N Gomes-Pereira, R. Prieto, V. Neves, J. Xavier, C. Pham, J. Gonçalves, F. Porteiro, R. Santos, & H. Martins, & Published On July 8th, 2014. Published By the Cambridge University Press. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-marine-biological-association-of-the-united-kingdom/article/role-of-malcolm-clarke-19302013-in-the-azores-as-a-scientist-and-educationist/5FCB2DD90B11F4EA51D66861A646B79D Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Terre-De-Bas, Guadeloupe This month's article series will discuss... the French isle of Terre-de-Bas. Terre de bas translates from French into English into the words bottomland, lowland, or downland. This is most likely due to the shallow elevation of the island. This island is a part of the tiny archipelago of the Terre Islands. These islands may also be known as the Petite Terre Islands due to their small size, these 2 islands have a combined total land mass of 0.71815 square miles (1.859999961 square kilometer). The Terre Islands directly translated from French into English as the Earth islands or the Land islands. However, the name was possibly not meant to be translated. This island itself as well as the Terre Island Group is a part of the Lesser Antilles & is a part of the municipality of Guadeloupe. Guadeloupe is owned by France as of 2024. A good way to see Guadeloupe on a map is to look for the archipelago that is vaguely shaped like a butterfly. This Island is in the Atlantic Ocean. The island also is a part of the Caribbean Sea. It exists in the Caribbean, being approximately 305.90 Nautical / Marine miles from Venezuela. It is also 1221.59 Nautical / Marine miles from Florida, which is a state of the United States. Terre de bas is so minuscule that is often not featured on maps & nautical maps of it are very scarce. The island is extremely biodiverse as it is very untouched by most humans so its natural environment is healthy. It has many nutrients & marine creatures that surround the island. One of the best examples of these intelligent & unique species is the West Indian Manatee. The previous article to this talks completely & solely about the West Indian manatee & its placement in the marine environment of Terre-De-Bas. The flora of these marine ecosystems is also especially unique. The majority of Terre-De-Bas’s coastal areas have been untouched & left alone by the few locals on the island. The marine ecosystems that are in need of maintenance are receiving it  & many conservation efforts have been made to protect & ensure the complete safety of the marine wildlife. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature,  marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the petite & peaceful island of Terre-De-Bas The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Basic Information The salinity of the island has not been measured & released to the public domain. Since the island is in the Atlantic, it will most likely have a higher salinity than say the Pacific Ocean or the Indian Ocean. Salt deposits / Brine Pools may be more common around the island due to the higher salinity. However, the existence of brine pools around the island has not been proven. The salinity levels of the Atlantic Ocean at any given time are between 35.5 & 34.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no ongoing factors that would lead to the salinity level being altered. The oceanic temperatures around the island can be found on a plethora of websites however the easiest to navigate & the most accurate ones are https://www.seatemperature.org, https://seatemperature.net, https://weather-and-climate.com, & https://seatemperature.info. The tidal chart can also be found on the majority of these websites as well. The tides usually never get over 1.5 meters tall (4.92126 feet) due to the strange placement of Terre-de-bas. The surf is never usually dangerously high.  The riptide also usually never becomes dangerously prominent to the point where it makes swimming a safety hazard. Currents around the island are not randomly forming & the majority of the existing currents do not go closely to the coastal areas. Swimming & scuba diving are incredibly common recreational activities that take place on Terre-de-bas. There is not very polluted water around the island as can be seen by the thriving wildlife & clear water. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine miles is 5,291.3 feet (1612.78824 meters or 1.61278824 kilometers) deep. The majority of the marine geographic terrain is composed of coral, mud, sand, & rock. Oceanic mounds are not very common around the island. There are no volcanoes that are oceanic in nature that exist in Guadeloupean waters. The closest oceanic volcano is Kick ‘em Jenny which is just north of the Country of Grenada, as well as the Grenadines. There are a total of 47 designated marine protected areas in Guadeloupe as of 2024. Only 1 of which is extremely highly protected & holds much higher penalties for destruction of the area than the 46 other marine protected areas. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Terre-De-Bas Coral Reefed Areas Coral reefed areas are usually located around close coastal areas. They can often be seen from the beaches & the piers of Terre-De-Bas. They are often located within 2,000 feet or less of the coast. All coral reefs found around Terre-De-Bas are fringing type rather than Barrier. It is unknown all the coral species around Terre-De-Bas. Unfortunately, the majority of these coral reefs are in horrible conditions. This is due to rising salinity levels, high sedimentation, & an overload of nutrients in the coastal waters which stems from excessive use of fertilizer. Guadeloupe does however have a barrier reef, just in the northern end of the archipelago which is not where Terre-De-Bas exists. Seagrass Bedded Areas There is no specific place where these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually, smaller animals are found here, which makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses give birth. It consists mostly of seagrass. It also works as the fish nursery for majority of the fish. The main species of seagrasses around Guadeloupe are Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass),& Syringodium filiform (filament grass). Turtle grass is more prominent & is found as deep as 10 meters (32.8084 feet). Filiment grass, however, makes up the majority of the deeper seagrass meadows. Syringodium Filiform is found as deep as 30 meters (98.4252 feet), this seagrass is usually found further off the coast rather than the other species. Seagrass meadows are also usually found near mangrove forests or are found embellishing coral reefs. Mangrove Forests Mangrove forests are areas where the trees & the ocean connect. This creates a unique ecosystem in which there is shallow brackish water, & lots of roots. The tree roots make a sort of underwater labyrinth for the fish & other creatures to enjoy. Mangrove forests are usually found further inland than mangrove coasts. The ocean usually runs off into these areas. Mangrove forests are especially unique because they have excessive nutrients. This is due to the meeting of the forest organisms & the oceanic organisms. The exact species of these mangrove trees have currently not been released to the public domain. Mangrove Coasts Mangrove coasts are extremely similar to mangrove forests. However, instead of the ocean running off into the mangrove forests, with mangrove coasts the mangrove trees grow directly along the coast. This provides unique shelter for all oceanic species. The mangrove tree species here are the most likely same here are they are in the mangrove forests—however these areas are at extreme threat levels due to the rising oceans. The Documented Marine Flora of Terre-De-Bas There are currently 2 seagrass species known to exist around Terre-De-Bas. These species have been stated in the subsections above. These species are known as Thalassia Testudinum (Turtle grass), & Syringodium Filiform (Filament grass). These grasses are not endemic to Terre-De-Bas & are found throughout the Lesser Antilles. These seagrasses are found in the highest density around the northern most facing side of the island. However, seagrasses aren’t the islands only marine Flora. Many different types of algae surround the island as well. The most prominent type of algae is brown algae, specifically from the genus Sargassum. It is well known for growing around all Caribbean islands & frequently washing up along these isles' shorelines. Sargassum is a a genus that contains most brown macroalgae species. It is unknown the exact amount of brown algae species that occupy Terre-De-Bas. The Documented Marine Fauna of Terre-De-Bas In marine fauna ,Terre-De-Bas is extremely diverse. This is due to the diversity of ecosystems which provide shelter as well as food & large amounts of nutrients. However, there are other contributing factors as to the biodiversity of Terre-De-Bas. Most often creatures will migrate up the lesser Antilles toyear-round find more prey, this makes it so that most creatures will not live year round around Terre-De-Bas. However biodiversity is slowly declining due to the increasing sea levels, decreasing amounts of coral, & mismanagement of wastewater. The best places to see these marine creatures that we speak of are in the areas with coral reefs. The reason for that is due to the majority of the creatures hunting in the coral reefs or living in the coral reefs. There are no known marine species that are endemic specifically to the island of Terre-De-Bas. However, there are some marine endemic species in Guadeloupe. The majority of coral reefs are tino the northern areas of the island. For this article, we will not be counting smaller organisms, or organisms that are in low density around the island. The most prominent marine species that are found around Terre-De-Bas are as follows: Trichechus Manatus (The West Indian manatee), Balaenoptera Acutorostrata (Northern Minke Whale), Balaenoptera Borealis (Sei Whale), Balaenoptera Brydei (Bryde’s whale), Balaenoptera Musculus (Blue Whale), Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whale), Short-Beaked Common Dolphin (Delphinus Delphis), Fersea Attenuata (Pygmy Killer Whale), Globicephala Macrorhyncus (Short-finned pilot whale), Lagenodelphis Hosei (Frasers Dolphin), Grampus Griseus (Risso’s Dolphin), Orcinus Orca (Killer Whale), Peponocephala Electra (Melon-Headed Whale), Pseudorca Crassidens (False Killer Whale), Stenella Attenuata (Pantropical Spotted Dolphin), Stenella Clymene (Clymene Dolphin), Stenella Coeruleoalba (Striped Dolphin), Stenella Longirostris (Spinners Dolphin), Stenella Frontalis (Atlantic Spotted Dolphin), Steno Bredanensis (Rough-Toothed Dolphin), Tursiops Truncatus (Common Bottlenose Dolphin), Physeter Catodon (Sperm Whale), Kogia Breviceps (Pygmy sperm whale), Kogia Sima (Dwarf Sperm Whale), Mesoplodon Europaeus (Gervais’s Beaked Whale), Ziphius Cavirostris (Cuivers Beaked Whale), Sphyraena Barracuda (Great Barracuda), Chelonia Mydas (Green Sea Turtle), Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle), & Finally, Albula Vulpes (Bonefish). How The Marine Resources Of Terre-De-Bas Were Utilized & How It Affected The Marine Environment The marine resources of Terre-De-Bas were most often utilized by commercial fishing & fishing for personal uses. Many edible fish are found around Terre-De-Bas which is what attracts the amount of fishermen. This for obvious reasons, causes the marine species to become less prominent in that area, which will cause many issues. A good example of this was when most of the fish that ate the Crown of Thorns starfish around Tutuila were hunted into local extinction, this then caused the population of the Crown Of Thorns to spike. The Crown Of Thorns then went about eating all the coral which caused a large environmental crisis. Another common use is for eco-tourism which is tourism for the specific purpose of visiting the natural environment. However, this eco-tourism can be unethical at times & lead to pollution & destruction of the natural marine environment. Thankfully, most of the marine resources of Terre-De-Bas have been left alone. This gives Terre-De-Bas the ability to support the mass amount of marine animals that it has today. Directories / Credits https://mpatlas.org/countries/GLP https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285934691_Recent_evolution_of_the_coral_reefs_of_Guadeloupe_and_Saint-_Barthelemy_Islands https://www.cayoli.fr/en/environment/seagrass-meadow/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication_262840512_First_assessment_of_the_diversity_of_coralline_species_forming_maerl_and_rhodoliths_in_Guadeloupe_Caribbean_using_an_integrative_systematic_approach https://www.shelltonewhaleproject.org/en/dauphins-et-baleines-en-guadeloupe/ https://www.atlantisformation-guadeloupe.com/en/m/Discover-the-Cousteau-Marine-Park-its-wildlife-and-outstanding-marine-life_a8.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa