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Today, we are covering one of the most intriguing oceanic animals that has left a lasting impression on me since I first discovered it. The Pyura chilensis is a sea creature that, from far away, resembles a rock you might see adrift in the deep ocean. However, this is far from the case, and if you went closer, you'd see an active and intricate organism. This animal is called a tunicate, or sea squirt, a marine animal that attains a strong, supple frame, commonly attaching to rocks or other similar surfaces through its posterior (backend). Sea squirts use fascinating holes called siphons that take in water from the ocean, and when passing through the structure, they can attain nourishment through strong food that is drawn and also draw in oxygen to support themselves. What is even more captivating is that tunicates are more closely related to humans than sea sponges are! Their taxonomic group, Tunicata, is a subphylum of Chordata, which includes all bony animals, or all animals with notochords. Moreover, when cut open, the Pyura chilensis reveals its mesmerizing scarlet flesh, which contains several heavy metals such as vanadium, iron, and titanium due to bioaccumulation, a process in which pollutants gradually build up in the flesh of various organisms. Despite its odd appearance, this creature is commonly eaten & exported for human consumption. Due to the flesh being so high in vanadium, there are health concerns about consuming Pyura chilensis excessively, and there is ongoing research on the safety of consumption. The Pyura chilensis has more fascinating features to offer; one is that it can reproduce by itself! The tunicate is born a male, forms female organs as it grows, and then to reproduce, it can release sperm from its male reproductive organs. When both sperm and eggs reach one another, they produce new Pyura chilensis in the form of tadpole-like larvae, which then repeat the process.  From SeaLifeBase.com , the Pyura chilensis prefers temperatures around 12° Celsius (53.6° Fahrenheit). and a depth of around zero to two hundred meters (0 to 656.168 feet). Additionally, they inhabit “the low intertidal down to the subtidal along the Chilean and Peruvian coast”, meaning the lower areas of the coastline which are usually more covered with water. This is especially useful to soft-bodied organisms such as the Pyura chilensis, in order to prevent desiccation, also known as drying out. The Pyura chilensis is truly one of the most interesting sea creatures that the ocean has to offer! A gorgeous photograph of the Pyura Chilensis, displaying its vibrant ruby flesh. Credit to wildlife photographer Arvid Puschnig.  Directories / Credits “Pyura Chilensis  Molina, 1782.” Pyura Chilensis, Edible Sea Squirt : Fisheries, www.sealifebase.se/summary/Pyura-chilensis.html . Accessed 13 Aug. 2025.  Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast  Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of a massive whale shark, swimming near the surface of the ocean. Credit to Andrea Izzotti. Today's article shall be discussing the oceans of Pujada Bay, Philippines. Pujada Bay is a bay located in the Southern Philippines, on the island of Mindanao. Mindanao is approximately 946.86 Nautical Miles (1,753.58472 kilometers or 1,089.62703 miles) away from mainland Asia. On November 17th of 2019, the Bay was put on the Most Beautiful Bays in the World List. For this reason, the bay is well known for being one of the most beautiful, as well as most biodiverse, bays on earth. The bay is confirmed to have at least 25 genera of both hard & soft coral, & it has at least 2,000 acres worth of mangrove along its coast. In addition to all of this, the bay is known to have at least 19 different species of seagrass. Since the bay is considered to be an international treasure, it is in a protected area. This area covers both the bay itself, & the landscape surrounding it. In addition to the landscapes surrounding the bay, the islands in the bay are also protected. The bay currently has 4 islands, known as Pujada Island, Uanivan Island, Oak Island, & Ivy Island. In addition to absolutely magnificent plant life, the bay has an incredibly rich history. Unfortunately, the bay is simply too large to cover the history of each surrounding town, so we will be focusing on Davao City. Davao City is a city overlooking the northern area of the Bay. Davao City is the largest city in the Davao Region, with a large population of 1,776,949. At the time of publishing, Davao City is the third largest city in the Philippines, after Quezon City, & Manila. Davao City is extremely large in land area as well, being approximately 943.48 square miles (2,443.60198 square kilometers). Currently, Davao City is home to the largest volcano in the Philippines, that being Mount Apo. At its highest peak, Mount Apo is approximately 9,692 feet (2954.122 meters) tall. The Volcano can be seen from the city center, standing gloriously on the horizon. In this article, we will be discussing the documented history of Davao City, the aboriginals of Davao City, the most destructive natural & man-caused disasters to affect Davao City, & the economy of Davao City. With that being said, let us delve into the Crown Jewel of Mindanao.  A gorgeous lush photograph of Pujada Bay, seen from the city of Mati, in Davao Oriental, Philippines. Credit to Davao Oriental. The Documented History Of Davao City Before Colonization   Before the founding of Davao City, at least 6 indigenous peoples' groups lived on the land.  After Colonization   Historical Events From The 1800s The Spanish Conquest of Mindanao began in 1620; however, it didn’t reach Pujada Bay until 1848. We are unable to find any historical documents dating before 1848 concerning the area. During this year, Don Jose Cruz de Oyanguren of Spain received a grant to “conquer & subdue the entire gulf district, expel or pacify the Moros there, & establish the Christian Religion”. Oyanguren then organized an expedition with 70 men & women, & set sail for Davao. Upon arrival, they allied with Datu Daupen, chief of the Samal Mandayas, a local indigenous group. Daupan saw an opportunity in Oyanguren's expedition, an opportunity to get back at Datu Bago. Datu Bago was the Muslim leader of Davao Gulf, & had the Mandayas as inferior vassals. Oyanguren first attacked the Datu Bagos settlement located at the mouth of the Davao River, & failed. The ships in his fleet could not properly sail through the channel, & were forced to retreat. He built a small camp near Bagos settlement, & constructed a causeway across the swamps to haul in cannons. During the three-month building process of the causeway, Oyanguren had to fend off several attacks from Datu Bagos against his workers. Soon after, help arrived from Zamboanga. Don Manuel Quesda, a Spanish Naval Commanding General, & his company of infantry joined the fight against Datu Bago. Despite receiving backup, Quesda & Oyanguren fled the area, hoping to continue the battle another day. Later on, Oyanguren wrote that he gained peaceful possession of Pujada Bay near the end of 1849, though he did not receive much support from the government in Manila. He began campaigning for the natives to live in larger settlements, to reach them more easily for trade. Unfortunately for him, the natives refused, & little economic development happened in the region because of it. By 1852, the government in Manila was dissatisfied with Oyanguren, & he was relieved of the command of Davao. His duties fell onto Governor General Blanco, Marquis de Solana. At this point, 526 settlers were living in the area, along with the natives. The next census of the area was in 1855, & reported the Christian population now at 817 people, which is a population increase of 55.3232%. In the year 1867, the first settlement at the mouth of the Davao River was relocated to its current area, with the Saint Peter's church acting as the center of town. Americans began ruling the area in Late December of 1898, & began slowly growing the town as a center of trade. The majority of the American settlers were retired soldiers from Manila, Cebu, & Zamboanga. Upon arrival, they began to realize the agricultural potential of the area. These soldiers began purchasing hectares by the hundreds, & planting imported coconut trees as well as abaca plants. As these plantations were popping up at a rapid rate, they encountered a large hurdle. This hurdle was a lack of workers to man these plantations. To combat this, they hired many workers from Luzon, Visayas, & many Japanese workers. After working on these plantations, the majority of the Japanese stayed & became landowners.  Historical Events From The 1900s Beginning in 1900, Davao began dominating trade in the Philippines, particularly with exports of abaca, copra, & lumber. Additionally, the port of the town began to become a well-known commercial international port. Around this time, there were at least 80 Japanese plantations, & 40 American Plantations. Particularly between 1903, & 1925, Japanese immigration to the city increased dramatically, as well as international focus. On October 16th of 1936, under Commonwealth Act 51, & sponsorship of Rumualdo C. Quimpo, it was finally decided that Davao City would become a city. The city would go on to be inaugurated on March 1st of 1937. The population of Davao when it was inaugurated was approximately 68,000. By the year 1940, it had increased to 98,000, which is a 44.1176% increase. The population would continue booming despite World War 2, seeing as in 1945, the population had increased to 111,263. Though the population grew, World War 2 pulverized the city, & brought many economic setbacks. Davao was one of the first areas to be occupied by Imperial Japanese forces. Upon arrival, they immediately began fortifying the city. Because the city was an agent for the Japanese government, it was constantly bombed by Americans, largely by General MacArthur. While the United States was attempting to liberate the city, the Japanese built a series of tunnels & put up a massive fight. The campaign to liberate Davao City was the longest out of any Philippine city, & took a total of 6 months. Davao was destroyed in the conflict, & took years to rebuild physically, & economically. Slowly, through the exportation of plywood, copra plants, banana, & Abaca, Davao regained its agricultural prowess.  The Aboriginals Of Davao City The Mansaka Indigenous Aboriginals Of Davao The Mansaka Indigenous Aboriginals are an indigenous group from the island of Mindanao. They speak the Mansakan language, a language from the greater Mandayan group. Mansaka are a subset of the larger Mandaya people. Currently, their primary crops are rice, & bananas. The Mansaka are well known for their colourful costumes, ornaments, complex beadwork, & dyed textiles.  Their villages are primarily located in the inland, & not on bodies of water. The family structure tends to be nuclear; however, it may also be polygynous. Each house in their villages may house up to 3 separate families, so they may look after each other easily. Each village seems to have a council of Elders governing the area, as well as a head of state known as a bagani.  The Manobo Indigenous Aboriginals Of Davao City  The Manobo Indigenous Aboriginals are a group of indigenous peoples from the Philippines. Currently, there are 8 different clusters of Manobo around the Philippines, each with slightly different cultures & dialects. Each group speaks one of the Manobo languages, as there are at least 16 different dialects. It is unclear which cluster lives around Davao City, so for this reason, we will be focusing on broader details. Each group practices agriculture with hand-dug irrigation systems. Unfortunately, it is unclear what their most popular crops are. In the Manobo Culture, the husband is the head of the house. For this reason, their social life is male-oriented, & male-dominated. In the majority of the subsets, polygyny is practiced amongst all men. Each Village in each subset is governed by a ruler, known as a Datu. The Datu is the most powerful figure in the Manobo culture, & handles most social ceremonies in the community, such as weddings. Below the Datu, there is the royal family, who rule the lower classes along with the Datu.  The Mandaya Indigenous Aboriginals Of Davao The Mandaya Indigenous Aboriginals are an indigenous group from the island of Mindanao. Currently, they live in the Mountains of the larger Davao Province. Including the Mansaka, there are 5 groups of Mandaya people. They speak the Mandaya Language, which is very similar to the Mansaka Language. Their culture is similar to the Mansakan people, with few differences. There are currently 33,000 Mandayan people. The Most Destructive Man Caused, & Natural Disasters Affecting Davao City Disaster No. 1: The Floods Of 2023 Davao City experiences frequent flooding due to its location. These floods usually cause damage, & occasional displacement of families. However, very few of these floods have the same effect as these did. On April 9th of 2023, extremely heavy rains flooded the Davao Area. These floods pulverized a total of 8 homes, & damaged 2 others. They also caused 350 people to be temporarily displaced, & moved to evacuation facilities. Unfortunately, 5 deaths were reported, as well as 1 missing person, as the final result of this rain. We were unable to find the names of these victims. In total, 1,538 people were affected by this crisis. For all of these reasons, the floods of April 2023 are considered to be one of the worst disasters in recent Davao history.  The Economic State Of Davao City The primary industries of Davao are lumber processing, agriculture, & grain processing. The largest agricultural exports are banana, durian, pineapple, & coffee bean. Davao has been steadily growing for many years, with a 7 to 9% growth rate over the last decade. Aside from this, there is little information in the public domain on the economy of Davao.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Davao City: History, Sights & Excursions in the Largest City in Mindanao“, Written by Melvin, & Published on May 19th, 2020. Published by Kapwa Travel. Retrieval Date: January 12th, 2024.  https://kapwatravel.com/davao-city/ Citation No. 2: “The History Of Davao History”, Written By Liana S. Clapis, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Scribd.  Retrieval Date: January 12th, 2024.  https://www.scribd.com/document/58157172/The-History-of-Davao-City Citation No. 3: “11 Tribes In Davao City You Must Know”, Written By 投稿者, & Published on September 22nd, 2023. Published by We Love Davao. Retrieval Date: January 12th, 2024.  https://welovedavao.com/tribe-davao/ Citation No. 4: “Mansaka”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by California State University, East Bay. Retrieval Date: January 12th, 2024.  https://www.csueastbay.edu/museum/virtual-museum/the-philippines/peoples/mansaka.html Citation No. 5: “Manobo Tribe”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Philippine Clearing House Mechanism. Retrieval Date: January 12th, 2024.  http://www.philchm.ph/featured-iccs/ Citation No. 6: “Mandaya Tribe”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Philippine Clearing House Mechanism. Retrieval Date: January 12th, 2024.  http://www.philchm.ph/mandaya-tribe/ Citation No. 7: “Philippines – 5 Dead, 1 Missing After Floods and Storms in South”, Written By Richard Davies, & Published on April 13th, 2023. Published By Floodlist.  Retrieval Date: January 12th, 2024. https://floodlist.com/asia/philippines-floods-davao-april-2023 Citation No. 8: “A Thoughtful Look Into The Davao Economy” Written By John Tria, & Published on July 23rd, 2023. Published By the Manila Bulletin. Retrieval Date: January 12th, 2024.  https://mb.com.ph/2023/7/23/a-thoughtful-look-into-the-davao-economy Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of Jerry Laurens Barnard looking distinguished in his laboratory taken at an unknown date. This article is part of our collection known as the Marine Hall of Distinction. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who have served marine biology and oceanography the most. We do this to commemorate these marine biologists and show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. Today's marine scientist is Jerry Laurens Barnard. Jerry Laurens Barnard is an esteemed marine biologist, carcinologist, & marine taxonomist known for his contributions to Amphipod taxonomy. He is particularly well known for his work with amphipods in the Sea of Cortez, also known as the Gulf of California. His work has heavily contributed to the understanding of crustaceans, & the understanding of marine biodiversity. In today’s article, we are going to delve into his formative years & education, his personal life & career, his achievements, awards, & accomplishments. His Formative Years & Education Jerry Laurens Barnard was born on February 27th, 1928, in the town of Pasadena California. As a child, he was noted for curiosity, & inquisitiveness about the natural world. To encourage this inquisitiveness, at the age of 12, his family brought him to an exhibition by the Allen Hancock Foundation at the University of Southern California. After witnessing it, he became even more fascinated by the natural world, & convinced of his passion for it. It was then, after this presentation, that he set his sights on becoming a scientist. This, combined with a fondness for creating collections & organization systems, inspired him to pursue taxonomy, the scientific discipline of categorizing life based on its evolutionary & genetic relationships. To begin his studies, he pursued an associate's degree in Science from Pasadena City College, then known as Pasadena Junior College. In 1947, he transferred to the University of Southern California, to begin his degree in Zoological Studies, the study of animals. He originally decided to focus on Corals of the Eastern Pacific Ocean, however, while studying, a new marine creature caught his interest, amphipods. During a showcase of crustaceans by a few of his peers, he became fascinated by them, & decided to pursue carcinology, the study of crustaceans. Upon finishing his bachelor’s degree, he pursued his P.hD in Zoology at the University of Southern California, finishing his thesis on the wood boring habits of marine boring worms in the Los Angeles Area. Upon graduating, he did a 3-year-long postdoctoral fellowship working in the Central Arctic Basin, giving him a basis for working on Amphipod taxonomy & systematics. His Personal Life & Career He began his career with the Beaudette Foundation for Biological Research in 1958 as an Associate investigator. Gradually, he rose through the ranks to become an Associate Research Director in 1960, staying in that role for approximately 4 years. During this time period, he is known to have made some of the most significant contributions to Amphipod taxonomy in the Sea of Cortez. In 1964, he transitioned into a position with the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History as the Associate Curator of Crustacea. He would retain this position for the rest of his life. In his capacity in this role, he oversaw the collection, preservation, restoration, construction, & upkeep of crustacean specimens for the museum. 1967 & 1968 saw him travelling posts, from the Bishop Museum in Hawaii, to the New Zealand Oceanography Institute, to the West Australian Museum in Perth. From his research at these various institutions, he published a research paper in 1969, one that would prove to be a valuable resource for every aspiring Amphipod Biologist for years to come. An agreement between the National Museum of Natural History lent Dr. Barnard on loan to the University of Arizona from 1970, to 1974. As such, he packed his wife Charline, his daughter Gretchen, & his son Roger up, & moved his family to the hot, arid city of Tucson, Arizona. He was appointed as a research associate at the University of Arizona, granted faculty privileges, & even given a modest office on campus. In his capacity as a Research Associate, he was tasked with advising the graduate students, & overseeing the new field station in Puerto Peñasco, Mexico. In addition to this, it was here that he met someone who went on to be a dear colleague of his. At the University of Arizona, Dr. Barnard met the famed invertebrate zoologist, conservation ecologist, & southwestern naturalist, Richard C. Brusca. From this point onwards, his horizons were broadened, & his research focused more broadly on worldwide Amphipods instead of being limited to the Eastern Pacific & Western North America. Having already been involved with crustacean research into the Sea of Cortez, he was intrigued by the potential of doing research into the Amphipod species & populations in the Sea of Cortez, also known as the Gulf of California. Before this, his work primarily revolved around amphipod species of the Eastern Pacific & western North America. A previous study conducted by the National Science Foundation, San Diego Natural History Museum, & the Beaudette Foundation involving him got his foray into the Sea of Cortez, & gave him an appreciation of marine amphipods in the region. As such, he had a great desire to stay at the University of Arizona, & attempted to negotiate with the Museum in 1972 to stay indefinitely in Tucson. Sadly, his efforts proved futile. In 1983, he began publishing again on the subject of marine amphipods in North America. In collaboration with a then-student of his, he published a landmark paper on the subject of freshwater amphipods, which would go on to be a benchmark in the field of carcinology, the study of crustaceans. Unfortunately, on August 16th, 1991, he passed away in Ramrod Key, Florida. He is remembered as one of the most extraordinary carcinologists of the 20th century, one of the world's foremost experts on Amphipod Systematics, & a brilliant scientist overall. His work continues to provide valuable insights to biologists, ecologists, & conservationists today, & is remembered fondly by many of his colleagues. An illustration of a variety of gammarians, a sub-order of Amphipoda, specifically living in the Mediterranean. Credit to Comingio Merculiano. His Achievements, Awards, & Accomplishments 1. He is credited as the most productive amphipod biologist when it comes to studying the Sea of Cortez, & is credited as the reason that we have such a thorough understanding of their amphipod population. 2. He published over 225 publications on marine amphipods, & across these, described approximately 890 new species, 242 genera, & 14 new families. 3. Approximately 20 species have been named in his honour since his passing. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Accession 93-015”, Compiled by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Smithsonian Institution of Archives. https://siarchives.si.edu/collections/siris_arc_254138 Citation No. 2: “The Arizona/Sea of Cortez years of J. Laurens Barnard”, written by R.C. Brusca, & Published on March 2nd, 1993. Published by Taylor & Francis Online. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00222939300770441?src=recsys Citation No. 3: “Obituary To J. Laurens Barnard”, Written by Unknown, & Published in 1991. Published by Revistas Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (Magazine of the National Autonomous University of Mexico). https://revistas.unam.mx/index.php/zoo/article/download/7094/6601 Citation No. 4: "The influence of J. L. Barnard on amphipod systematics in the southwestern Pacific", Written by J.K. Lowry, & Published on March 13th, 1993. Published by Taylor & Francis Online. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00222939300770451 Citation No. 5: "New families, genera and species of amphipod crustaceans described by J. Laurens Barnard (1928–1991)", Written by P.L. Rothman, & Published on December 16th, 1992. Published by Taylor & Francis Online. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00222939300770461?src=recsys Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow The Open Book, Topanga Pitfire Artisan Pizza Olivenbaum Music Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Today's article shall be discussing the oceans of Pujada Bay, Philippines. Pujada Bay is a bay located in the Southern Philippines, on the island of Mindanao. Mindanao is approximately 946.86 Nautical Miles (1,753.58472 kilometers or 1,089.62703 miles) away from mainland Asia. On November 17th of 2019, the Bay was put on the Most Beautiful Bays in the World List. For this reason, the bay is well known for being one of the most beautiful, as well as most biodiverse, bays on earth. The bay is confirmed to have at least 25 genera of both hard & soft coral, & it has at least 2,000 acres worth of mangrove along its coast. In addition to all of this, the bay is known to have at least 19 different species of seagrass. Since the bay is considered to be an international treasure, it is in a protected area. This area covers both the bay itself, & the landscape surrounding it. In addition to the landscapes surrounding the bay, the islands in the bay are also protected. The bay currently has 4 islands, known as: Pujada Island, Uanivan Island, Oak Island, & Ivy Island. In addition to absolutely magnificent plant life, the island is rich with marine animals. The largest of these marine animals is known as the Whale Shark. We published an article on this animal on September 10th, for those who are particularly interested. Apart from being the largest, the whale shark just so happens to be one of the most profitable animals around the island. Many tourists come each year to swim with these sharks, & to get a close look at them. Aside from the whale shark, the island is home to magnificent & illustrious marine life, such as the dugong, sea turtles, & dolphins. Along with the traditional marine fauna, there is plenty of diversity of coral in the bay. Coral from the Montipora, Acropora, & Porites genera can be found plentifully in the bay. In this article, we will discuss the Salinity, Tides, Marine Geography, & Depth of the waters in the bay, the most prominent marine ecosystems of the bay, the marine flora & fauna of the bay, & how oceanic rising temperatures as well as oceanic acidification have affected the bay. With that being said, let us delve into the oceans in Pujada Bay.  A gorgeous photograph of a lush island in Pujada Bay, Mindanao, Philippines. Credit to the city of Davao. The Salinity, Temperatures, Tides, Marine Geography, & Depth of Pujada Bay Unfortunately, we cannot find an exact salinity statistic for Pujada Bay. Since the average salinity of the water in the southwestern Pacific is 35 parts per thousand at any given time, it can be assumed that the salinity level falls around that number. Salinity is measured in 1,000-gram increments. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This number is called parts per thousand, or practical salinity units. This is the way that salinity is currently measured. Since Pujada Bay is located in the Pacific Ocean, it has a lower salinity than the Atlantic. Salt deposits or brine pools have not been proven to be found around the island in higher concentrations than in other areas. The oceanic tides of Pujada Bay can be found on a very small number of websites, the most common of which is https://www.tideschart.com . The tides around the island rarely get over 2.1 meters (6.88976 feet) tall, & tend to be quite mild. The temperatures can be found on similar websites, the most common being https://tides4fishing.com . Unfortunately, this website does not give the monthly or yearly averages of the oceanic temperatures of Pujada Bay, so we are unable to provide wetsuit guidance. Pujada Bay is not currently known to have riptides that are strong enough to cause issues for swimmers. The bay is safe for swimmers, as well as other oceanic activities. The pollution levels of the bay are very mild, & are not harmful to humans. Overall, the bay remains pristine. Unfortunately, we were unable to find an estimate of the depth of the bay. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Pujada Bay Ecosystem Type No. 1: Fringing Coral Reefs Pujada Bay is known for its beautiful & biodiverse Coral Reefs. Coral reefs are massive structures of coral polyps, typically located along the ocean floor. These coral reefs are a massive hub for marine life, & act as a breeding ground, hunting ground, spawning ground, & shelter. There are various kinds of coral reefs, the most important of which are atoll, barrier, & fringing. The coral reefs in the bay are of the fringing kind, meaning that they grow directly against the shoreline, without any kind of barrier. Currently, there are known to be 25 different genera of coral in the bay, both hard & soft species. The most plentiful genera found in the bay are Montipora, Acropora, & Porites. These coral reefs are usually in shallow areas, & currently there are no known deep-sea coral reefs in the bay.  Ecosystem Type No. 2: Intertidal Zones Intertidal zones are defined as areas of the shoreline that are exposed to air at low tide, & are submerged at high tide. These intertidal zones often have crustaceans, & bivalves, as well as small fish during high tide. These zones are biodiverse, & are only located directly along the shoreline. Areas such as these are the most vulnerable to human activity as they are the closest to the shoreline.  Ecosystem Type No. 3: Mangrove Forests  Pujada Bay is currently known to have 2,100 acres (3.28125 square miles, or 8.498398 square kilometers) of Mangrove Forest. Mangrove forests are groups of trees that grow in the coastal zone. Pujada Bay has very thick, dense mangrove forests, filled with magnificent marine & terrestrial life. These forests often have very shallow waters around them. Mangrove forests are found in all areas around Pujada Bay, as well as on the majority of the islands in the bay. The bay has 5 prominent species of mangrove tree, which are: Rhizophora Mucronata (Loop-Root Mangrove), Rhizophora Apiculata (Tall Stilt Mangrove), Sonneratia Alba (Mangrove Apple), Avicennia Marina (White Mangrove), & Bruguiera Gymnorhiza (Large-Leafed Orange Mangrove).  The Documented Marine Flora Of Pujada Bay Pujada Bay is extremely biodiverse when it comes to Marine Flora. The bay has 9 of the 16 seagrass species found in the Philippines, that we are aware of. No seagrass species found in the bay are known to be endemic; however, this may change. In addition to seagrasses, 5 species of mangrove trees grow alongside the bay. These species of mangrove have evolved to tolerate high salinity levels, which gives them the ability to grow directly in the bay water. Below, we will list, & provide information about each of these species.  No. 1: Rhizophora Mucronata (Loop-Root Mangrove) Rhizophora Mucronata is a species of Mangrove found alongside the coasts of eastern Africa, & the eastern areas of Asia. They grow to be an average of 37.5 feet (11.43 meters) tall, & are listed as least concern by the IUCN Red List.  No. 2: Rhizophora Apiculata (Tall Stilt Mangrove)  Rhizophora Apiculata is a species of mangrove native to Micronesia, & Southeast Asia. They are able to grow to an approximate maximum of 20 meters (65.6168 feet) tall, & have been categorized under Least Concern by the IUCN Red List.  No. 3: Sonneratia Alba (Mangrove Apple) Sonneratia Alba is a species of mangrove native to Australia, East Africa, India, Southeast Asia, & the Western Pacific Regions. They can grow to an approximate maximum of 30 meters tall. The IUCN has examined them, & has categorized them under Least Concern.  No. 4: Avicennia Marina (White / Grey Mangrove) Avicennia Marina is a species of mangrove native to Southeast Asia, India, Eastern Africa, Australia, & various Pacific Islands. They can grow to an approximate maximum of 30 meters tall. They are most commonly found in tidal mudflats. The IUCN has examined them, & has categorized them under Least Concern.  No. 5: Bruguiera Gymnorhiza (Large-Leafed Orange Mangrove)  Bruguiera Gymnorhiza is a species of mangrove native to Oceania, Australia, Southeast Asia, Polynesia, Southwest Asia, & Western Africa. They can grow to an approximate maximum of 20 meters. It has been examined by the IUCN, & has been categorized under Least Concern.  A photograph of the mangrove forests adorning Pujada Bay, Mindanao, Philippines. Credit to the Philippine Primer. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Pujada Bay Pujada Bay is extremely biodiverse when it comes to marine animals. Dugongs, Whale Sharks, fish, & turtles are just a few of the many animals that reside in the bay. Despite being extremely biodiverse, there is not a large amount of information on what exact species reside in the bay. For this reason, we cannot provide any more information for this section.  How Ocean Acidification & Rising Oceanic Temperatures Are Affecting Pujada Bay, & Their Future Effects Ocean acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, & deforestation, for the past 150 years, post-industrial revolution.  When carbon dioxide contacts seawater, it forms carbonic acid.  Carbonic acid gives off positive hydrogen ions, which causes increased oceanic positively-charged hydrogen ion concentrations & decreased oceanic pH. This off-balance pH can cause the coral in the bay to become stressed out, & possibly bleach. These coral reefs are vital to the marine life, so once they bleach, the ecosystem around them collapses along with it. In addition to the marine life, these coral reefs are extremely important to the local fishing industry, meaning that economic loss will also occur. Currently, only 2% of coral reefs in the Philippines as a whole are considered to be in excellent condition, which shows that the effects of ocean acidification, & global warming are actively taking hold. If conservation efforts do not begin, then a catastrophe is soon to occur. Thankfully, there is at least 1 organization that is attempting to restore damaged coral reefs in the bay, using 3D-printed clay bricks. This organization is known as RRReefs, & their website is as follows: https://www.rrreefs.com .  Directories / Credit s Citation No. 1: “Rappler’s ‘Virtual cesspool’ story on Pujada Bay debunked by DENR“, Written By Unknown, & Published on July 8th, 2022. Published by Edge Davao. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://edgedavao.net/latest-news/2022/07/08/rapplers-virtual-cesspool-story-on-pujada-bay-debunked-by-denr/ Citation No. 2: “Anthropogenic Marine Debris (AMD) in Mangrove Forests of Pujada Bay, Davao Oriental, Philippines”, Written by Neil Angelo S. Abreo, Stefenie Katrin V. Siblos, & Edison D. Macusi, & Published on April 13th, 2020. Published by the Journal Of Marine & Island Culture. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://jmic.online/issues/v9n1/3/ Citation No. 3: “Loop-Root Mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata)”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Garden Association. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://garden.org/plants/view/145727/Loop-Root-Mangrove-Rhizophora-mucronata/ Citation No. 4: “Rhizophora Apiculata”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Flora & Fauna Web. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/3/2/3265 Citation No. 5: “Rhizophora Apiculata”, Written by Unclear & Last Updated on March 7th, 2008. Published by the International Union For The Conservation Of Nature. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/31382/9623321 Citation No. 6: “Sonneratia Alba”, Written by Unknown, Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Flora & Fauna Web. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/4/7/4739 Citation No. 7: “Sonneratia Alba”, Written By Unknown, & Last Updated on March 7th, 2008. Published by the International Union For The Conservation Of Nature. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/178804/7611432 Citation No. 8: “Avicennia Marina”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By The Tropical Plants Database. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://tropical.theferns.info/vie wtropical.php?id=Avicennia+marina Citation No. 9: “Avicennia Marina”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Flora & Fauna Web. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/6/4/6453 Citation No. 10: “Bruguiera Gymnorhiza”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Mangrove. AT. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  http://www.mangrove.at/bruguiera-gymnorhiza_large_leafed-orange-mangrove.html Citation No. 11: “Bruguiera Gymnorhiza” Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Flora & Fauna Web. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/3/2/3260 Citation No. 12: “Bruguiera Gymnorhiza”, Written By Unknown, & Last Updated March 7th, 2008. Published by the International Union For The Conservation Of Nature. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/178803/7610926 Citation No. 13: “Pujada Bay, Philippines”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by RRReefs. Retrieval Date: January 6th, 2024.  https://www.rrreefs.com/projects/pujada-bay-ph/ Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Today’s antique nautical chart in our Ode to Oceanography series is an intriguing, 198-year-old nautical chart of Copenhagen, Denmark! This chart showcases the “Kattegat”, which is a sea passage between the North Sea & Baltic Sea, between Denmark & Sweden. This map depicts the entirety of the passage, along with parts of northeastern Denmark, & Southwestern Sweden. The map is mostly in Danish, making it difficult to understand for many primary English speakers, however, the information is still mostly intelligible. The chart contains a treasure trove of trade routes, islands, communities, sounding depths, lighthouses, & similar information, making it extremely useful to any sailor of the era attempting to cross the Kattegat. The chart is also rather large at 22 inches wide by 35.4 inches long. It is in fantastic condition as well, with little to no yellowing, marks, fold-lines, rips, or tears, making the image clear. In today’s article, we shall discuss the map itself, & perform an analysis of it! With that being said, let us delve into the icy waters of Denmark! The Chart Itself A magnificent 198-year-old map of the Kattegat between Denmark & Sweden, connecting the North & Baltic Seas. Credit to the Danish Royal Navy. As mentioned in the introduction, the subject of this map is the Kattegat, which translates literally as “Cat’s Gate”, for its rough waters, islands, narrowness, & rocky outcroppings. The area is a very economically, & politically important body of water connecting the North & Baltic Seas. At the time, it was also a massive source of income for the Danish Government, as it would tax any vessels sailing through. The Kattegat enables trade between the two regions, & as such, it was essential to have proper navigation when sailing through it. The chart is uncoloured, maintaining a consistent cream colour throughout, not changing to differentiate land & sea. The chart includes a decent amount of bathymetric information, meaning information about the seafloor, as sounding depths can be seen displayed in some of the oceanic areas. In addition to this, it includes an incredible amount of town names, settlement names, lighthouses, & islands, useful to any sailor or merchant looking to transport goods or passengers between the two nations. As mentioned in the introduction, the chart is in stunning condition considering its age. It has no yellowing, a few completely repaired rips not impacting the quality of information, no fold lines, or anything of the type. An Analysis Of The Chart This chart was designed & manufactured in 1827 by the Royal Danish Nautical Chart Archive. The Royal Danish Nautical Chart Archive was created by the Danish Government in 1784 to provide accurate nautical information to the Royal Danish Navy, civilian sailors, & merchants passing through Danish waters. In the top right corner, we see a gorgeous design called a “Cartouche”, around the title of the map, “Kaart over Kattegattet”. This cartouche contains a mermaid playing the lyre, a merman holding a trident & raising his hand, along with 2 goddesses holding a spyglass along an oar, the bows of ships. Above the cartouche is the seal of King Frederick VI of Denmark, Former King of Norway. Immediately below that, we see the crest of the Royal Danish Navy, which has the initials of the Royal Danish Nautical Chart Archives, along with the date that the map was manufactured. Considering the time that the chart was made in, the late 1820s, we believe that this chart was manufactured through lithography. Lithography is a method of printing that arose in the 1820s, & remained the most popular method of printing in both color & grayscale until the early 1960s, when more efficient methods became available. Although it has existed since the mid-1790s, it took a long time to gain popularity in Europe due to technical difficulties, & only began gaining commercial popularity in the early 1820s. It is still widely used for certain kinds of printing, such as fine art printing today, however, digital printing is far more common. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the image is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho-press. Afterward, an exact copy of what was supposed to be printed is revealed. It is extremely useful for making high-resolution prints in high quantities. A photograph of the Kattegat, depicted in its full glory. Credit to the shop Vikings & Valhalla. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Rare Maps, a California rare & antique maps store. To purchase this chart, antique atlases, or other cartographic objects, please visit www.raremaps.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Rare Maps, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A gorgeous split photograph of a Whale Shark in the vast blueness of the sea. Credit to ocean photographer Barathieu Gabriel. This month's article series will be discussing the beautiful & esteemed Pujada Bay! Pujada Bay is a bay located in the Southern Philippines, on the island of Mindanao. Mindanao is approximately 946.86 Nautical Miles (1,753.58472 kilometers or 1,089.62703 miles) away from mainland Asia. On November 17th of 2019, the Bay was put on the Most Beautiful Bays in the World List. For this reason, the bay is well known for being one of the most beautiful, as well as most biodiverse, bays on earth. The bay is confirmed to have at least 25 genera of both hard & soft coral, & it has at least 2,000 acres worth of mangrove along its coast. In addition to all of this, the bay is known to have at least 19 different species of seagrass. Since the bay is considered to be an international treasure, it is in a protected area. This area covers both the bay itself, & the landscape surrounding it. In addition to the landscapes surrounding the bay, the islands in the bay are also protected. The bay currently has 4 islands, known as: Pujada Island, Uanivan Island, Oak Island, & Ivy Island. In addition to absolutely magnificent plant life, the bay is rich with marine animals. One of these marine animals is the Whale Shark. The Whale Shark is the world's largest species of Shark, & the world's largest species of fish. It is not a mammal, & it is not closely related to whales. The name “Whale Shark” comes from its whale-like appearance, not its genealogy. These sharks are found largely in tropical areas, & tend to prefer warmer environments. Whale sharks are known to be very sweet, & will occasionally even let swimmers swim with them. They do not dislike humans, & younger whale sharks will sometimes even play with divers. In addition to their docile nature, they are fairly intelligent animals. Whale sharks around certain islands in the central Philippines have learnt to come at a certain time each morning to be fed shrimp. The fishermen who feed these whale sharks feed them so that tourists can see them more easily. In this way, a deal is made, & the fishermen, tourists, & whale sharks all benefit in their ways. In this article, we will discuss the discovery & life of the Whale Shark, the mating strategies of the Whale Shark, the distribution of the Whale Shark, & the scientific details of the Whale Shark. With that being said, let us delve into this fascinating behemoth.  The Discovery & Life Of The Whale Shark The Whale Shark Was Discovered by Sir Andrew Smith, a British Surgeon, explorer, ethnologist, & zoologist. He discovered this species in the year 1828, & gave it the name of “Rhiniodon Typus”. The Whale Shark can be up to 62 feet ( 18.8976 meters) long, & 41,000 pounds (18,597.287 kilograms). The upper limit of their life span is unclear, though they have been recorded to live to at least 100 years.  As a species, Whale Sharks have existed for at least 24.8 million years, which would mean that they have existed since the Paleogene. Whale Sharks are intelligent creatures, & are usually docile. They will often allow humans to swim around them, & will even approach humans. Juveniles are known to play with divers, & approach them with the inquisitiveness of a human child. Whale sharks aren’t territorial, as they are constantly migrating, & rarely stay in the same area for more than a few months. This species is generally solitary, unless there is an event that would bring a large amount of food to one place, such as mass coral spawning. Despite being migratory, Whale Sharks are extremely slow. Whale Sharks are known not to be able to swim faster than approximately 3 miles per hour. The reason for swimming like this is that they have to conserve energy. Due to their large size, & slow speeds, they aren’t very agile animals. Since sharks don’t have swim bladders like the majority of fish, they control their buoyancy by having extra oil stored in their livers. This species in particular has to constantly be swimming, so they are only able to sleep by shutting off half of their brains, & keeping the rest on standby. The diet of the Whale Shark largely consists of shrimp, krill, algae, small fish, & occasionally jellyfish. They are filter-feeding organisms, similar to baleen whales or Basking sharks. They are not cannibalistic in any sense. Whale Sharks have their mouths constantly open, so whenever they are moving, they are eating. Chemosensory is the most common way that whale sharks locate their food. Due to their massive size, adult whale sharks have no known predators. However, juveniles are known to be targeted by Great White Sharks, as well as Blue Marlin. The Whale Shark is light grey, with white spots & small stripes all over. These white spots & stripes are uniquely patterned on each Whale Shark, much like a human fingerprint. No two whale sharks are the same. Their heads are flat, with blunt snouts, & their underbelly is white. As of 2025, there are currently estimated to be 119,000 to 240,000 individuals left. According to the last population assessment on March 18th of 2016, they are currently endangered. With a population trend that is decreasing, the future of the Whale Shark is heavily conservation dependent.  A photograph of a whale shark swimming in the Georgia Aquarium, illustrating its massiveness relative to humans, while fascinated onlookers watch. Credit to the Georgia Aquarium. The Mating Procedures, Practices, Tactics, Cycles, & Strategies Of The Whale Shark The Whale Shark breeds via sexual reproduction. Whale Sharks are gonochoristic, & have 2 distinct sexes. The breeding system of this species is polyamorous, meaning that both sexes have multiple partners each breeding season. The Whale Shark will reach sexual maturity at age 25, & will usually breed until its old age. It is unclear how, or where exactly, the whale sharks will congregate to mate, or how long their gestational period is. Once the male sharks have initiated to each other that they wish to mate, they will breed via internal fertilization. The males will have no part in the children's lives, & apart from giving them life, neither with the female. It is currently a scientific mystery as to where they give birth, though some theories suggest it may be the Philippines. Females are ovoviviparous, meaning that their eggs are gestated in egg casings within their body, & will hatch out of the female when they are ready. They do not have placentas, & are not attached to their mother physically. The female will give birth to between 1 & 300 pups, then will promptly abandon them. These pups will be between 38, & 60 centimeters long at birth. The mother will leave the children to fend for themselves, & swim off into the ocean, never to be seen again.  The Distribution Of The Whale Shark The Whale Shark is distributed around the globe, primarily in tropical or subtropical settings. They tend to enjoy waters that are between 21° Celsius, & 25° Celsius (69.8° Fahrenheit & 77° Fahrenheit). They are known to enjoy deep, & shallow coral reefs, as well as coastal waters. As of 2025, the deepest a whale shark has ever been recorded to swim is 1,800 meters (5,905.512 feet). Whale sharks are naturally migratory, & are known to not stay in the same place for long. Large groups of whale sharks may occasionally migrate to a certain region when large amounts of food spontaneously flow into that area, creating a similar effect to a Jellyfish Bloom. The Scientific Details Of The Whale Shark By far the most interesting thing about the whale shark is its 10-centimeter-thick skin. Whale sharks have incredibly thick skin to deter attacks, namely from Great White sharks, & killer whales. Whale sharks have 3,000 miniature teeth in their jaw, which reach a maximum of 6 millimeters long. These teeth aren’t used for feeding, as the whale shark is a filter feeder rather than an active predator. Similar to all sharks, the whale shark does not have bones or a skeleton. They instead have a large cartilaginous structure in their bodies. The reason for their lack of bones is that cartilage is much less dense than bone, making swimming much faster. Whale sharks are unfortunately, very prone to leeches, tapeworms, parasitic copepods, & certain species of flatworms. These parasitic infections are a large nuisance to the whale, & can result in skin discolouration. Copepod infections will often appear in the form of thick red patches on the skin; however, they don’t affect the whale shark. Due to its thick skin, the copepods aren’t really hurting the whale shark, & mainly feed off of bacteria already found on the whale shark's skin. Though not affected, the whale sharks still feel discomfort, & will often attempt to get them off. The primary species of copepod that inhabits the whale shark is the Pandarus Rhincodonicus. This species is not specific to one population of Whale shark, & is found globally. It exclusively inhabits whale sharks, & is not known to parasitize any other species at this time. Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics. All species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either in adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal slits, & a post-anal tail. & three middle ear bones. Their class is Chondrichthyes. This is a class of fish that is primarily composed of cartilage. This class can be compared to the class Osteichthyes, which is a class of fish that is primarily composed of bone. A few universal characteristics for any fish in the class Chondrichthyes are that they are all jawed vertebrates, they have paired fins, paired nares, scales, & a heart with chambers in a series. Their order is Orectolobiformes, which are commonly known as Carpet Sharks. A universal characteristic in this order is that they have 2 dorsal fins that are proportionally short, & a mouth that does not extend behind their eyes. This order currently has 43 species categorized under it. Their family is Rhincodontidae, which has only 1 living member, that being the whale shark. Their genus is Rhincodon. The whale shark's binomial name is Rhincodon Typus.  Directories / Credits  Citation No. 1: “Pujada Bay is Among The World’s Most Beautiful Bays” Written by Karen Lou Deloso, & Published on November 17th, 2019. Published by Province of Davao. Retrieval Date: December 28th, 2023.  https://davaooriental.gov.ph/news/tourism/pujada-bay-is-now-among-worlds-most-beautiful-bays/ Citation No. 2: “Facts” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the World Wildlife Fund. Retrieval Date: December 28th, 2023.  https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/whale-shark Citation No. 3: “Marine Life Encyclopedia Sharks & Rays: Whale Shark” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Retrieval Date: December 28th, 2023.  https://oceana.org/marine-life/whale-shark/ Citation No. 4: “Whale Shark: Rhincodon Typus” Written By S.J. Pierce, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the International Union For The Conservation Of Nature. Retrieval Date: December 28th, 2023.  https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/19488/2365291#population Citation No. 5: “Whale Shark Reproduction” Written By Unknown, & Published on February 1st, 2014. Published by the Galapagos Conservation Trust. Retrieval Date: December 28th, 2023.  https://galapagosconservation.org.uk/whale-shark-reproduction/ Citation No. 6: “Whale sharks With Parasites”, Written by Simon Lorenz, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Insider Divers. Retrieval Date: December 30th, 2023.  https://www.insiderdivers.com/single-post/2019/06/13/whalesharks-with-parasites Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A mesmerizing photograph of two Sea Lions standing up on a beach on San Cristobal Island / Chatham Island, Galapagos Island, Ecuador. Credit to Touring Galapagos. In today’s article, we will be discussing the history of San Cristobal Island, located in the Galapagos Islands. San Cristobal Island is a part of the Galapagos Islands Archipelago, located in the southern Pacific Ocean. Out of all the Galapagos islands, San Cristóbal Island is the farthest east. San Cristobal Island is located approximately 501.75 nautical miles (577.403588 miles or 929.241 kilometers) off the central coast of Ecuador. Though San Cristobal Island is not the main Galapagos island, it is one of the only two islands with an airport. It is the fifth largest of the 127 Galapagos islands. The island has a very low population, with only about 6,000 inhabitants. The island is extremely biodiverse, & has vibrant marine ecosystems that are directly connected with the towns around them. Many consider the sea lions that live on the beaches, walkways, & park benches to be locals. The majority of the beaches, as well as coastal walkways on the island, have these marine mammals on them. Aside from the Sea Lions, San Cristobal Island has a variety of other interesting things to offer. San Cristobal Island has an incredibly long geological history, being that it was one of the first islands in the Galapagos Archipelago to form. It is also one of the islands in the archipelago that has mountains on it, the largest of which is Cerro San Joaquin. Cerro San Joaquin is approximately 2,339 feet (712.93 meters) tall. The island is approximately 215 square miles (556.85 square kilometers), the majority of which is uninhabited. The current capital of the Galapagos Archipelago, Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, is located on the southwestern coast of the island. Despite being the capital, it is not the largest island in the capital. In this article, we will discuss the history of San Cristobal Island, the aboriginals of San Cristobal Island, the most destructive natural & man-caused disasters to affect San Cristobal Island, & the economy of San Cristobal Island. With that being said, let us delve into the History of the beautiful & tranquil land, known as San Cristobal Island.  The Documented History of San Cristobal Island Before Colonization Extremely little is known about San Cristobal Island before its discovery by the Spanish in the 1500s.  Historical Events From The 1500s, 1600s, & 1700s  The Galapagos islands were discovered on March 10th, 1535 by the Dominican Friar, Fray Tomás de Berlanga. The islands were cast aside at first for their lack of water, & lack of food. Unfortunately after this, very little was done with San Cristobal Island. It would not be until the 1800’s that anything major would happen with the island. After Colonization Historical Events From The 1800s In the year 1832, the construction of what would become the oldest town in the Galapagos Islands began. This town is Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, the modern capital of the Galapagos Islands. The town first began as a sugar production settlement, located in the highlands of the island. Soon after, San Cristobal Island was visited by Charles Darwin. He visited the island in the year 1835, & compiled data on the natural flora as well as fauna. He would later take this data, & integrate it into his book “On The Origin Of Species”, published in 1859. The island would go on to become a penal colony, where prisoners from the mainland would be shipped. The sugar mills were run by these prisoners, who were treated like animals, & worked in deplorable conditions.  Historical Events From The 1900s During the 1900s, Tourism began to rise around the Galapagos Islands, & the province began to have a thriving economy. In honour of Charles Darwin, a monument to him was erected in the year 1935. The Aboriginals Of San Cristobal Island Due to little access to freshwater, as well as the remote location, no one was able to settle on the island. As of 2025, there is no evidence that any aboriginals groups inhabited the island before it was discovered by the Spanish. The Most Destructive Natural & Man-Caused Disasters To Affect San Cristobal Island Disaster No. 1: The Oil Spill Of 2001  On January 19th of 2001, a massive Ecuadorian oil tanker known as the Jessica began leaking diesel fuel into the ocean. The leakage was caused by damage in the hull, & the majority of the leakage occurred approximately 500 meters (1,640.42 feet) away from the mainland. The Ecuadorian president at the time was understandably outraged, & demanded an explanation & a report on what exactly happened. The long-term implications of this oil spill are that the oil will eventually sink to the ocean floor, & disrupt algae blooms. These algae blooms are vital for the marine life, as they provide the nutrients needed for many creatures to survive. Additionally, it will be extremely hard to clean up this toxic fuel. At the time of publishing, we still have not seen all the effects of this event. In total, the Jessica leaked approximately 150,000 gallons of diesel fuel into the ocean. This is one of the most destructive ecological disasters to affect the Galapagos Islands.  The Economy Of San Cristobal Island The Economy of San Cristobal Island is relatively stable. The largest industry on the island is currently tourism, with U.S tourists alone bringing in an astounding 143 million U.S.D. each year. Unfortunately, aside from this, we do not have any information on the economic state of San Cristobal Island.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “San Cristobal Island, Galapagos”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by The Ecuador & Galapagos Insiders. Retrieval Date: December 20th, 2023.   https://galapagosinsiders.com/travel-blog/san-cristobal-island-galapagos/ Citation No. 2: “San Cristóbal Island”, Written By Unknown, & Published on July 20th of 1998. Published by the Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieval Date: December 20th, 2023.  https://www.britannica.com/place/San-Cristobal-Island     Citation No. 3: “More About San Cristobal”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Go Galapagos. Retrieval Date: December 20th, 2023.   https://www.gogalapagos.com/islands/san-cristobal/ Citation No. 4: “The Impacts Of Tourism”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Discovering Galapagos. Retrieval Date: December 21st, 2023.  https://www.discoveringgalapagos.org.uk/tag/economy/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

The Northern Elephant Seal of Santa Rosa Island, California (Mirounga angustirostris) This month's article series will be about the gorgeous isle of Santa Rosa Island, California. Santa Rosa Island is a relatively small island approximately 26 miles off the coast of Santa Barbara, South Central California. It is the second largest island in the Channel Islands Archipelago of California. The island is approximately 83.12 square miles (215.27981 square kilometers) in area. Despite being so large, the island has a minuscule population of 2 people, making for an extremely low population density of 0.024061597690087 square miles (0.009290234880828 square kilometers). The island is well known for its beautiful hiking trails, rolling hills, deep canyons, & mesmerizing coastline. Many tidepools are located along its coastline, which are frequently explored by curious visitors. The lagoons near the island are often used as whale nurseries, & dolphin nurseries for young dolphins. Overall, the oceans surrounding Santa Rosa Island are incredibly biodiverse, housing over 100 endangered animals, & serving as a breeding ground for many more. One of the animals using the isle as a breeding ground is the Northern Elephant Seal. The Northern Elephant Seal is a species of Elephant Seal found along the western coast of North America, from Alaska to Baja California. They are well known for their large snouts, which are used to make extremely loud roaring noises. Male Elephant Seals are enormous, & are far larger than the females. In this article, we shall discuss the Discovery & Life Of The Northern Elephant Seal, The Mating Habits, Practices, Procedures, Techniques, Tactics, & Strategies Of The Northern Elephant Seal, The Distribution Of The Northern Elephant Seal, & the Scientific Detailings Of The Northern Elephant Seal. With that being said, let us delve into the Northern Elephant Seal. The Discovery & Life Of The Northern Elephant Seal  Northern Elephant Seals were discovered by Theodore Nicholas Gill, an American ichthyologist, librarian, malacologist, naturalist, zoologist & mammalogist. He described this species in 1866. Mature males are able to grow up to 13 feet long, & weigh up to 4,400 pounds (1995.806 kilograms). Males are far larger than females, with the females only growing up to 10 feet long & weighing up to 1,300 pounds (589.6701 kilograms). Males have a far higher amount of body fat as well, making them far more cumbersome. Individuals have a fair life span, lasting between 13 & 19 years. Their intelligence level is unmeasured, however, they are believed to be extremely intelligent. Individuals are able to differentiate between 2 separate humans in the wild & in captivity. Additionally, they are able to exhibit affectionate behaviors towards humans they particularly like. Both adult & baby Northern Elephant Seals have a natural curiosity towards humans, & an inquisitiveness about the world. In the wild, they tend not to interact with humans. Under Federal Law, it is illegal for any unauthorized humans to harass, touch, or harm a Northern Elephant Seal in a way that would alter its natural behavior. They are aggressive towards humans both provoked & unprovoked, & are known to make loud roaring noises to warn humans against attacking them. Males are incredibly territorial, & will defend their areas through loud vocalizations, & violence against other Northern Elephant Seals. Apart from breeding, they are generally not social creatures. the average diet of a Northern Elephant Seal consists of Squid, Small Fish, Rays, & Sharks. They are not cannibalistic at any stage in their lives. Due to their large size, there are very few animals physically capable of predating upon them. To maintain their weight, they must consume 120 to 270 pounds (54.4311 to 122.47 kilograms) of food per day. They are active predators, & locate food through sight. This species is equipped with extremely large eyes, that are able to detect movement & light more easily than most other seal species. Individuals are nocturnal hunters, & heavily rely on bioluminescent light from their prey to hunt. The only animals known to predate upon them are Orcas, & Great White Sharks. Individuals are able to swim up to 10 miles per hour, & will swim 15,000 to 20,000 miles per year. Their cruising speed is usually much lower than 10 miles per hour, to conserve fuel. They swim by pushing themselves forward with their tail fins, & then gliding underwater until they have slowed down, & need to speed up again. They remain buoyant through their thick layer of fat, known as blubber. They are fairly agile animals while in the ocean, being able to skilfully traverse the water column. On land, however, they are very slow & cumbersome. Individuals are able to sleep by turning off half of their brains, & finding a comfortable area to sleep on land. While they also sleep underwater, they spend a considerable amount of time sleeping on land. Female Northern Elephant Seals are light silver in color, with a more streamlined body than their male counterparts. They have dark grey or black whiskers, with large black eyes & small snouts. Males are very bulbous, with large elephant-like snouts. They are also silver in color, with slightly smaller eyes, & large flippers. As of 2026, they are categorized as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List, meaning that they are not endangered. Their population is actively increasing, painting a hopeful future for the Northern Elephant Seal. There are between 110,000 & 220,000 mature Northern Elephant Seals at any given time.  The Mating Habits, Practices, Procedures, Techniques, Tactics, & Strategies Of The Northern Elephant Seal Northern Elephant Seals breed via sexual reproduction. They have 2 distinct sexes, & are not naturally hermaphroditic. Their mating system is Polygamous, with Male Northern Elephant Seals having a harem of 5 to 50 females. Males will reach sexual maturity at 10 years of age, which is when they will begin battling other males for dominance. Their breeding season is from December 15th through March 31st, in which much violence will occur. After coming of breeding age, the males will begin calling out a mating song for females. Females will become attracted to this male, & join his harem. A male will protect his harem as well as his pups fiercely. The male has an extremely intense drive to copulate each season, & will in extreme cases as many as 250 pups each year. The gestation period for the pups is between 7 & 11 months long. The mother will forage at sea for the majority of her pregnancy, before returning to shore to mate. She will give birth to a single pup, who she will nurse for 4 weeks until they are able to consume solid foods. The pup is then abandoned by its mother, to fend for itself. Unfortunately, only 50% of pups will survive the first year, with even fewer surviving to maturity.  The Distribution Of The Northern Elephant Seal Northern Elephant Seals are found from the Aleutian Islands to Baja California. Their primary breeding colonies are in the Channel Islands off the Coast of California. They spend the majority of their lives at sea, & only visit land to breed, molt, or give birth. They are known to dive extremely deep into the ocean to hunt, however they spend the majority of their time in shallow water.    The Scientific Detailings Of Northern Elephant Seal Northern Elephant Seals possess 30 different sharp teeth, useful for tearing their prey apart. Similar to Humans, Northern Elephant Seals deal with many different kinds of parasites. The most common Parasite found in this species is the nematode Otostronglyus circumlitis, which parasitizes the lungs. It is a significant cause of death amongst adult elephant seals off the coast of California, & is unfortunately very common.  Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail.  Their clade is Pinnpedia. Pinnipeds are a heavily distributed & extremely diverse clade of semiaquatic species & marine mammals. They are part of the family known as  Phocidae. Animals categorized under Phocidae are essentially earless seals, which means that they do not have ear flaps / coverings, & they do not have any distinguishable ear that can be seen unless you are incredibly up close or using instruments to help. Their genus is Mirounga, which encompasses all Elephant Seals. Their binomial name is Mirounga Angustirostris.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Northern Elephant Seal”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Marine Mammal Center. Retrieval Date: June 5th, 2024.  https://www.marinemammalcenter.org/animal-care/learn-about-marine-mammals/pinnipeds/northern-elephant-seal Citation No. 2: “How Much Do Seals Eat In A Day”, Written by Sandra King, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Pets on Mom. Retrieval Date: June 5th, 2024.  https://animals.mom.com/much-seals-eat-day-11423.html Citation No. 3: “An Elephant Seal’s Deep Dive”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Friends of the Elephant Seal. Retrieval Date: June 5th, 2024.  https://elephantseal.org/an-elephant-seal-deep-dive/ Citation No. 4: “Northern Elephant Seal: Mirounga Angustirostris”, Written by Luis Huckstad & Last Updated on December 8th, 2014. Published by the International Union For The Conservation Of Nature. Retrieval Date: June 5th, 2024.  https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/13581/45227116 Citation No. 5: “Diagnostic Tests for Lungworm-Infected Northern Elephant Seals”, Written by Julie D. Sheldon, Jorge A. Hernandez, Shawn P. Johnson, Cara Field, Sarrah Kaye, & Nicole I. Stacy, & Published on April 25th, 2019. Published by the Marine Mammal Center. Retrieval Date: June 6th, 2024.  https://www.marinemammalcenter.org/publications/diagnostic-tests-for-lungworm-infected-northern-elephant-seals Strategic Partnership Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

A photograph of Jeanne Villepreux-Power at an unknown time, draped in a beautiful lace shawl. Credit to Jeanne Villepreux-Power. This article is part of our collection known as the Marine Hall of Distinction. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who have served marine biology and oceanography the most. We do this to commemorate these marine biologists and show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. Today's marine scientist is Jeanne Villepreux-Power. Jeanne Villepreux-Power was a renowned French marine biologist, aquarist, & esteemed dressmaker. She is best known for inventing the aquarium, her research on Argonauta argo , & creating the wedding dress of Marie-Caroline, Duchess of Berry. She has been coined the “Mother of Aquariophily”, & broke glass ceilings for women in science all around the world. In today's article, we are going to delve into her formative years & education, her personal life & career, & her achievements, accomplishments as well as her awards. With that being said, let us delve into the renowned career of Jeanne Villepreux-Power! Her Formative Years & Education Jeanne Villepreux Power was born on September 25th, 1794, in Juillac, France. She was born as the daughter of a shoemaker, likely where she earned her passion for garment construction & dressmaking from. Her mother passed away when she was 11, leading her family to live on a stricter budget. Her schooling was not very advanced, as with many people of a lower economic status of the era, with the notable exception of reading, writing, & rhetoric. In 1812, she walked approximately 461 kilometers from her home in Juillac to Paris, eyes set on becoming a seamstress. Unfortunately, the relative who was designated as her travel guardian assaulted her on the way, & stole her identification documents. As such, she had to attend to her injuries, & receive new identification documents from the local police. Terribly, the job that she had lined up in paris was given to another seamstress due to her delay, & she was forced to take a lesser job as a dressmakers assistant. Her Personal Life & Career Despite the rough start to her career, she quickly rose to acclaim as a dressmaker, as she designed the wedding dress of Princess Marie-Caroline of Bourbon-Two Sicilies for her 1816 wedding to Charles de Ferdinand Bourbon. This led her to become one of the most renowned dressmakers in Paris, & at the wedding ceremony, she met English Merchant James Power. The pair fell in love, & married in 1818. They married, & subsequently moved to Messina, Sicily, a harbour city in Northeast Sicily, where her passion for the natural world began to grow. She taught herself about the terrestrial & marine fauna as well as the flora of Sicily, educating herself about the biological world. Beginning in 1832, Jeanne developed an interest in Argonauta argo, also known as the Greater Argonaut. The Greater Argonaut is an interesting species of coastal octopus known for its distinctive appearance, & paper-thin shell which it lives in. She closely examined the creature, fascinated by its unique features, & the mystery of its shell. You see, at the time, it was assumed that Argonauts found their shell from an external source similar to a Hermit Crab, rather than creating it themselves. However, Jeanne was not entirely convinced of this. She also knew that to get a proper grasp on a living organism's anatomy, you cannot solely study dead specimens. So, in 1832, she developed one of the first aquariums, to observe the Argonaut from birth to death in its live form. This aquarium was the first of its kind, a revolutionary invention for ocean research & marine animal research. While raising Argonauts in her aquarium, Jeanne discovered that the mystery of their shell wasn’t as it seemed. Instead of finding shells from an external source, she watched as Argonauts developed their own shells beginning almost immediately after birth, proving this belief false. In addition to this, she also illustrated her argonauts subjects in beautiful colour illustrations, in order to make a record of them. A photograph of an Argonaut with its body partially extended from its shell. Credit to Marevision. An illustration of an Argonaut hiding in its shell. Credit to Mrs. Jeanne Villepreux-Power. Due to the fact that women were not allowed to present their research in universities or most academic societies, Jeanne had to send a proxy in the form of Richard Owen to present her groundbreaking work to the London Zoological Society. In her research, she also invented 2 other aquarium-esque devices, such as a glass device placed within a cage that is supposed to be placed in shallow water, & another aquarium-esque device which was surrounded by a cage & capable of being lowered into the ocean. She used these devices to create a network of cages off the coast of Sicily, & each day, would row her boat from shore to check on each of these cages. She would put food as bait into each of them, hoping to catch another marine organism. She would go on to publish “Observations et expériences physiques sur plusieurs animaux marins et terrestres” , a French book about her research on Argonauts using her aquarium. Soon after, in 1842, she published a book about the environment of Sicily titled “Guida per la Sicilia” . Both of these brought her notoriety in the scientific world, & contributed to her ultimately being the first female member of the Gioenian Academy of Natural Sciences, along with a member of a dozen other Zoological societies. In 1842, she, along with her husband & family, moved to residences in Paris & London. Unfortunately, as a result of the move, many of her writings, scientific apparatuses, & collections were lost due to the cargo ship sinking on its way to deliver her belongings. She did still continue her work after this, she did not continue her research, & transitioned to mainly scientific writing. Sadly, on January 26th, 1871, Mrs. Jeanne Villepreux Power passed away. Her contributions to marine biology, & historical fashion, are eternal. She will forever be remembered as the mother of the Aquariophily, a revolutionary marine scientist, & a skilled inventor. Her Achievements, Accomplishments, & Awards 1. She invented the aquarium, an instrument which marine science as a field could not have progressed as far without. 2. She was the first scientist to truly study the Octopus Argonauts, & was the first person to prove that Argonauts create their own shells as opposed to finding them from external sources as hermit crabs do, fundamentally changing our understanding of them. 3. She was an extremely renowned dressmaker, designing the wedding dress for Princess Marie Caroline, House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, a high honour. 4. In 1997, a large crater on Venus was named in her honour “Villepreux-Power”. 5. In 1858, she was referred to by English paleontologist Richard Owen as the “Mother of Aquariophily”, which means the mother of aquarium keeping. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Jeanne Villepreux-Power”, Written by John P. Rafferty, & Published on February 25th, 2025. Published by Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jeanne-Villepreux-Power Citation No. 2: “History's Hidden Figures: Meet the 19th Century French Dressmaker Who Invented the Aquarium”, Written by Katharine, & Published on September 24th, 2023. Published by A Mighty Girl. https://www.amightygirl.com/blog?p=26020 Citation No. 3: “The Seamstress Who Solved the Ancient Mystery of the Argonaut, Pioneered the Aquarium, and Laid the Groundwork for the Study of Octopus Intelligence”, Written by Maria Popova, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by The Marginalian. https://www.themarginalian.org/2022/12/26/jeanne-villepreux-power-argonaut/ Citation No. 4: “Meet Jeanne Villepreux-Power”, Written by Unknown, & Published on June 3rd, 2024. Published by the Stemettes. https://stemettes.org/zine/articles/meet-jeanne-villepreux-power/ Citation No. 5: “Jeanne Villepreux-Power: Marine Biologist & Inventor of the Aquarium”, Written by Susan Fourtané, Published on September 25th, 2018. Published by Interesting Engineering. https://interestingengineering.com/culture/jeanne-villepreux-power-marine-biologist-and-inventor-of-the-aquarium Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A gorgeous photograph of a vast blue bay in San Cristobal Island, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador. Credit to the Galapagos Fragata Yacht Co. In this article, we will discuss the oceans of San Cristobal Island / Chatham Island. San Cristobal Island is a part of the Galapagos Islands Archipelago, located in the southern Pacific Ocean. Out of all the Galapagos islands, San Cristóbal Island is the farthest east. San Cristobal Island is located approximately 501.75 nautical miles (577.403588 miles or 929.241 kilometers) off the central coast of Ecuador. Though San Cristobal Island is not the main Galapagos island, it is one of two islands with an airport. It is the fifth largest of the 127 Galapagos islands. The island has a very low population, with only about 6,000 inhabitants. The island is extremely biodiverse, & has vibrant marine ecosystems that are directly connected with the towns around them. Many consider the sea lions that live on the beaches, walkways, & park benches to be locals. The majority of the beaches, as well as coastal walkways on the island, have these marine mammals on them. A Sea Lion barking along a beach on San Cristobal Island, Galapagos Archipelago, Ecuador. Credit to the Galapagos Aside from the Sea Lions, San Cristobal Island has a variety of other interesting marine species to offer. These creatures range from reef sharks to exotic & colourful fish. One of the most well-known places to find these reef sharks is Kicker Rock. Kicker Rock is located off the coast of the northwestern portion of the island. It is the remnants of a volcanic eruption. The area is most well-known for its magnificent coral reefs that have a large population of Galapagos sharks. Since this group of rocks is so far away from San Cristobal Island, it is only accessible by boat. In this article, we will discuss the Salinity, Tides, Marine Geography, & Depth of the waters surrounding the island, the most prominent marine ecosystems of the island, the marine flora & fauna of the island, & how oceanic rising temperatures, as well as oceanic acidification, are affecting the island. With that being said, let us delve into the oceans surrounding San Cristobal Island.  The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Depth Of The Oceans Surrounding San Cristobal Island The Salinity around San Cristobal Island is approximately 33.5 parts per thousand. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no ongoing factors that would lead to the salinity level being altered. The tidal charts around San Cristobal Island are found on a plethora of websites, a few of which are: https://www.tide-forecast.com , https://www.tideschart.com , & https://www.seatemperatu.re . Generally speaking, the tides rarely get over 6 feet tall. The oceanic temperatures can be found on similar websites, such as: https://www.seatemperature.org , https://seatemperature.net , https://seatemperatures.net , https://www.tide-forecast.com , & finally https://seatemperature.info . The average yearly oceanic temperature is currently 24.7° Celsius (76.46° Fahrenheit). Using this average, it is recommended that swimmers wear a 3 millimeter full suit, or a 2 millimeter short suit. The area is not known to have high riptide, & is perfectly safe for swimming, snorkelling, & scuba diving. There is very little oceanic pollution, & it is considered to be safe for humans to swim in the ocean. In the oceanic areas closer to the coast, the water is known to get at least 130 feet deep. There are no known oceanic canyons near the island, nor are there any seamounts. The Galapagos Islands have several Marine Protected Areas, which are known as The Galapagos National Park Marine Reserve, The Galapagos Marine Reserve, & the Galapagos Biosphere Reserve. For the beautiful coral reefs & expansive forests, San Cristobal Island is extremely popular for Eco-Tourists. The majority of these Eco-Tourists will do hiking, wildlife observation, snorkelling, & scuba diving.  Some of the best beaches for wildlife watchers, swimmers, & snorkelers, are considered to be: La Loberia, Puerto Chino Beach, Cerro Brujo, Playa Mann, Punta Pitt, Playa Punta Carola, Playa Baquerzio, Playa De Oro, Puerto Grande, Playa El Manglecito, Los Marinos, & Muelle Tijeretas.  The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of San Cristobal Island Ecosystem Type No. 1: Fringing Coral Reef Fringing Coral Reefs are the most common, as well as well best-known ecosystem. Around the island, the coral reefs are of the fringing type; hence the name fringing coral reefs. These ecosystems are the most biodiverse, & are extremely important to the island. Coral reefs are used as shelter, spawning grounds, breeding grounds, & hunting grounds. Around San Cristobal Island, there are both shallow & deep-sea coral reefs. These coral reefs range from being 5 to 1,500 feet (1.52 to 457.2 meters) deep. Not only do these coral reefs provide a haven for marine life, but they also act as a natural cushion to the waves & storms around the island. Ecosystem Type No. 2: Coastal Mangrove Forests Towards the southern end of San Cristobal Island, there are multiple areas of mangrove forests. These mangrove forests are extremely important to the island's ecosystem diversity, as they house many different species, a few of which are endemic to the Galapagos Islands. On San Cristobal Island, there are an estimated 4 species of mangrove tree: Laguncularia Racemosa (White Mangrove), Avicennia Germinans (Black Mangrove), Rhizophora Mangle (Red Mangrove), & Conocarpus erectus (Buttonwood Mangrove). These mangroves have incredibly deep waters, so much so that rays can navigate them regularly. These mangrove forests serve not only as a refuge for marine life, but also as a natural habitat for Waterfowl.  The Documented Marine Flora Of San Cristobal Island Being in the Galapagos Islands, the island has a big variety of marine flora as well as fauna. As said in the subsection titled “Ecosystem Type No. 2: Coastal Mangrove Forests”, the primary mangrove species are as follows: Laguncularia Racemosa (White Mangrove), Avicennia Germinans (Black Mangrove), Rhizophora Mangle (Red Mangrove), & Conocarpus erectus (Buttonwood Mangrove). Unfortunately, as for oceanic flora that grows directly in the ocean, there is little to no data. There are no current issues with invasive marine plant species, invasive parasites, or invasive diseases.  The Documented Marine Fauna of San Cristobal Island Marine Fauna around San Cristobal Island is plentiful & very diverse, ranging from colourful tropical fish, to fur seals who are practically citizens. Since San Cristobal Island has both shallow & deep-sea coral reefs, the island provides a very rich habitat. As of 2025, there are at least 5 endemic marine animals, discounting waterfowl.  How Rising Oceanic Temperatures Are Affecting San Cristobal Island Unfortunately, the coral reefs around San Cristobal Island are incredibly easily affected by rising ocean temperatures. During events in which the water temperature spikes, the coral will become stressed out, & will eventually bleach. Once the coral becomes stressed, it is difficult for it to recover. With intervention, Coral can heal within the first few weeks of bleaching. Once it reclaims its food source & zooxanthellae, it will slowly begin to heal. There have been a few mass-scale bleaching events, namely the 1990s & 2010s. As ocean temperatures rise, more of these events could occur, & diminish the coral population even more.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Wetsuit thickness and temperature guide, Written by Mark Evans, & Published on April 24th, 2023, at 3:05 PM. Published By Scuba Divers Magazine. Retrieval Date: December 12th, 2023. https://www.scubadivermag.com/wetsuit-thickness-and-temperature-guide/#Scuba_diving_wetsuits Citation No. 2: “5 BEST BEACHES INSAN CRISTOBAL, GALÁPAGOS”, Written by Unknown & Published On October 29th, 2022. Published By The Portuguese Traveler. Retrieval Date: December 13th, 2023.  https://theportuguesetraveler.com/galapagos/san-cristobal/best-beaches-san-cristobal/ Citation No. 3: “Creativity in Science: Studying Mangroves in Galapagos” Written by Isabel Grijalva and Nicolálas Moity & Published on March 4th, 2021. Published by the Charles Darwin Foundation. Retrieval Date: December 13th, 2023.  https://www.darwinfoundation.org/en/blog-articles/681-creativity-in-science-studying-mangrove Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A gorgeous photograph of the Hawaiian Day Octopus, a creature that we covered in a previous article about the Hawaiian Island of Lanai. This octopus is known for its vibrant blue spots, symbolism in Hawaiian Culture, & conniving intellect. Credit to underwater photographer Teresa Zubi. Today’s map in the Ode to Oceanography series is a lovely, 108-year-old, nautical chart of Hawaii, then referred to as the “Territory of Hawaii”, as it had not yet reached statehood. This chart showcases the entirety of the islands of Hawaii, from Ni’ihau to the Island of Hawai’i. The map features a trove of topographic information, as well as information about coastal communities on the island. The map even includes volcanic eruptions which occurred around the time In addition to this, near the bottom towards the left, there is a table of the approximate distances between Honolulu, the capital of Hawaii, & various major cities. This would have been useful for any sailor of the Pacific, or any scientist looking to sail between Hawaii & any major cities. Although the chart has slight discolouration, it is still concise, with proportions of 33 inches (83.82 centimeters) wide, & 22 inches (55.88 centimeters) long. In today’s article, we will discuss the map itself, & analyze this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the idyllic tropical islands of Hawaii! The Chart Itself A splendid 108-year-old map of Hawaii from the U.S. General Land Office. This chart depicts all of the Pacific Islands of Hawaii, listed as the “Territory of Hawaii”. The chart was manufactured in 1917, back when Hawaii was a Territory, as it did not reach statehood until 1959. The chart is coloured, with a light blue showcasing the sea, brown shades depicting each island, & red lines on each island depicting routes that one could take should they decide to traverse the island. Sadly, the chart does not include very much Bathymetric information, however, it makes up for it in topographic details. The chart includes a multitude of town names, & other topographic features such as mountains, volcanoes, lava flows, past eruptions, & rivers, extremely useful to any sailor of the era. The chart is also in decent condition, with some slight discolouration, & minor yellowing. An Analysis Of The Chart This map was manufactured in 1917, by the United States General Land Office. During the time of the maps' creation, Hawaii had been freshly made a Territory of the United States by the Hawaii Organic Act of 1900. To establish new infrastructure & connections with the mainland, it was imperative to have a proper understanding of Hawaii’s topography, surrounding oceans, volcanic activity, & similar attributes. It is also important to note that due to this sudden need for information about Hawaii, multiple other cartographers sprang into action & created similar maps. Hawaii was also seen as a paramount part of our connections to Australia, & East Asia, & having an understanding of its distance from these locations would have been very important to many sailors of the Pacific during this Era. This is most likely why it was decided to include the table near the left center, showcasing the distance between various major port cities of the Pacific & Honolulu. Considering the time that the chart was made in, & the fact that it was mass-produced, we believe that this chart was manufactured through lithography. Lithography is a method of printing that arose in the 1820s, & remained the most popular method of printing in both color & grayscale until the early 1960s, when more efficient methods became available. It is still widely used for certain kinds of printing, such as fine art printing today, however, digital printing is far more common. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the image is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho-press. Afterward, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. It is extremely useful for making high-resolution prints in high quantities. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Rare Maps, a California rare & antique maps store. To purchase this chart, antique atlases, or other cartographic objects, please visit www.raremaps.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Rare Maps, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

An intriguing photograph of the Galapagos Shark (Carcharhinus galapagensis). Credit to underwater photographer Andy Murch. This month's article series shall discuss the esteemed & magnificent San Cristóbal Island / Chatham Island! San Cristobal Island is a part of the Galapagos Islands Archipelago, located in the southern Pacific Ocean. Out of all the Galapagos islands, San Cristóbal Island is the farthest east. San Cristobal Island is located approximately 501.75 nautical miles (577.403588 miles or 929.241 kilometers) off the central coast of Ecuador. Though San Cristobal Island is not the main Galapagos island, it is one of two islands with an airport. It is the fifth largest of the 127 Galapagos islands. The island has a very low population, with only about 6,000 inhabitants. The island is extremely biodiverse, & has vibrant marine ecosystems that are directly connected with the towns around them. Many consider the sea lions that live on the beaches, walkways, & park benches to be locals. The majority of the beaches, as well as coastal walkways on the island, have these marine mammals on them. Aside from the Sea Lions, San Cristobal Island has a variety of other interesting marine species to offer. One of these species is the Carcharhinus Galapagensis (Galapagos Shark). The Galapagos Shark is a species of reef shark found in various tropical settings, in both the Atlantic & Pacific Oceans. This species is very similar in appearance to a few other species of large reef sharks, making it very hard to distinguish between them. The Galapagos Shark is very rarely found in intertidal zones, & usually stays in open oceanic coral reefs. While diving, one may find these sharks at depths of 20 to 590 feet (6.096 meters to 179.832 meters) deep. Usually they are found alone; however, they are known to form large groups around inlets & seamounts. In this article, we will discuss the discovery & life of the Galapagos Shark, the mating strategies, practices, procedures, tactics, & cycles of the Galapagos Shark, the distribution of the Galapagos Shark, & the scientific details of the Galapagos Shark. With that being said, let us delve into this beautiful requiem shark.  A photograph of a small bay along the coastline of San Cristobal Island / Chatham Island. Credit to travelguidesworld.com . The Discovery & Life Of The Galapagos Shark The Galapagos Shark was discovered by Robert Evans Snodgrass, an American entomologist, & Edmund Heller, an American zoologist. It was discovered in the year 1905. The evolutionary history of the Galapagos Shark is very unclear. It is estimated that they have existed since at least the early Cretaceous period. The Galapagos Shark reaches a maximum of 11 feet (3.3528 meters) long. Additionally, it reaches a maximum of 418.878 pounds (190 kilograms). The lifespan of the Galapagos Shark is 20 to 24 years. The intelligence of the Shark is understudied; however, what is known is that they are not playful. Though they are considered to be potentially dangerous, it is extremely unlikely that they will attack a diver.  As of 2025, Galapagos Sharks are under pressure from the fishing industry, as many local fishermen like to catch & eat them. This is why the localized population in the Galápagos Islands is aggressive towards boats, as well as people. Currently, this species has caused 1 fatal shark attack to a diver in the Virgin Islands. This species is not known to be territorial, though there is a clear hierarchy between the various sharks. Galapagos sharks are solitary animals, only forming groups when they are in a frenzy. Sharks, in particular, can swim by flexing themselves side to side, which propels them forward. They steer themselves using their pectoral & dorsal fins. With these adaptations, they can move through the water column with ease. The average speed of the Galapagos shark is 3.2 kilometers per hour (1.98839 miles per hour). Unlike the majority of fish, sharks do not have swim bladders. Instead of using swim bladders to control their buoyancy, their livers have extra oil in them. Galapagos Sharks are only able to sleep by shutting off half of their brains, & continuing to swim. They usually sleep close to the sea floor. Galapagos Sharks usually have a diet of crustaceans, molluscs, fish, & occasionally small sea lions. Since they swim so close to the bottom, they often feast on bottom dwellers. These bottom dwellers can range from octopi & squid to eels & triggerfish. They are cannibalistic, & are known to occasionally eat their pups. For this reason, the pups will purposely stay in shallower water. Unfortunately, we do not know how much they eat per day, nor do we have any information on their metabolism. These sharks hunt diurnally, & hunt seemingly whenever they can. They locate their food through sight, & ripples in the water. Galapagos Sharks function as predators in the coral reef ecosystem. This species of shark has very few natural predators, aside from local fishermen. The Galapagos Shark is light grey, with a white underbelly. Their upper tail fin is elongated, & their snout is slightly rounded. They are often mistaken for the grey reef shark, as well as the dusky shark. The IUCN Red List has assessed this species, & has thankfully given it the ranking of Least Concern. The Mating Strategies, Practices, Procedures, Tactics, & Cycles Of The Galapagos Shark The Galapagos Shark breeds via sexual reproduction. Galapagos Sharks are not hermaphroditic, & have two distinct sexes. Additionally, they are viviparous, meaning that they are live-bearing. These sharks are considered to be polyamorous, meaning both males & females have multiple partners. In the Galapagos Islands population they are known to breed around the eastern parts of the Archipelago. Both females & males will sexually mature at the age of 10 years. Unfortunately, very little information on their breeding habits is available, so it is unclear what the exact breeding ritual is like. The females will initiate the ritual by releasing a chemical into the ocean. Once the ritual is complete, the males will have no part in the pup's life. Their gestational period lasts approximately 1 year, & each pregnancy yields 4 to 16 pups. Once the pup is born, the mother will most likely not have another litter for another 2 to 3 years. These pups will be 16 to 32 inches (40.64 to 81.28 centimeters) long at birth. More often than not, the pups will be forced to stay away from their parents, & are given little to no care.  The Distribution Of The Galapagos Shark Galapagos Sharks are found in various island chains around the world, & rarely migrate between them. These island chains are Bermuda, the Virgin Islands, Cape Verde, Ascension Islands, Saint Helena, the Galapagos Islands, Walter’s Shoal, São Tomé Island, & the Hawaiian Islands. The Galapagos Shark is found no deeper than 82 feet when they are juveniles, & as adults are found as deep as 919 feet. This species is not migratory at all. They tend to swim at the bottom of the ocean, near patches of loose substrate.  The Scientific Details of The Galapagos Shark By far the most interesting thing about this shark is their large teeth. The Galapagos Shark has 14 large, serrated teeth that are triangular. These teeth are incredibly sharp, & will cause large amounts of damage if they were to bite. Their lower teeth are much narrower, & point straight up with a small base instead of being triangular. Galapagos Sharks are known to have 1 major parasite, which is known as Dermophthirius Carcharhini. This parasite is a species of worm that causes massive infections in these sharks, & can cause loss of scales. In addition to the loss of scales, the worm can cause the death of the shark. Unlike most requiem Sharks, the Galapagos Shark has a mere 58 vertebrae. Their skeleton of this shark is largely cartilaginous, which helps them to swim. Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics. All species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either in adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. & three middle ear bones. Their class is Chondrichthyes. This is a class of fish that is primarily composed of cartilage. This class can be compared to the class Osteichthyes, which is a class of fish that is primarily composed of bone. A few universal characteristics for any fish in the class Chondrichthyes are that they are all jawed vertebrates, they have paired fins, paired nares, scales, & a heart with chambers in a series. Their order is that of Carcharhiniformes. This order has approximately 270 species categorized under it, & is characterized by two dorsal fins, anal fins, & five gill slits. Their family is that of Carcharhinidae, which are commonly known as requiem sharks. The majority of these sharks are found in tropical areas. This family of sharks has existed since at least the Valanginian age. Their genus is that of Carcharhinus. Currently, there are 35 different species categorized under this genus. Their binomial name is currently Carcharhinus Galapagensis.  Directories / Credits   Citation No. 1: “Carcharhinus Galapagensis” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Florida Museum. Retrieval Date: December 8th, 2023.   https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/carcharhinus-galapagensis/ Citation No. 2: “Galapagos Shark” Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Shark Guardian. Retrieval Date: December 8th, 2023. https://www.sharkguardian.org/amp/galapagos-shark Citation No. 3: “Galapagos Sharks” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Galapagos Conservation. Retrieval Date: December 8th, 2023.  https://galapagosconservation.org.uk/species/galapagos-shark/ Citation No. 4: “Galapagos Shark: Carcharhinus Galapagensis” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by AZ Animals. Retrieval Date: December 8th, 2023.  https://a-z-animals.com/animals/galapagos-shark/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons  P. R. Ochoa

An astute headshot of Sabine Castro. Credit to Sabine Castro. Recently, we were truly fortunate to speak with Sabine Castro, the Founder of Dolphin Defenders & an Aspiring Marine Biologist. Sabine Castro founded the ocean education organization "Dolphin Defenders" in January of 2025. Since then, her team has grown to over 20 dedicated & hard-working individuals, who have built partnerships with organizations such as the UN & the Manta Trust. In today’s interview, we sit down with Sabine to discuss her lovely organization, ideas for & efforts in ocean conservation, & advice for young people who are looking to make a change, in a comprehensive 13-question interview. Before delving into today’s interview, please note everything said has been edited for clarity, & that the opinions of our interviewee do not necessarily reflect the views & values of our organization. With that being said, let us delve into the contents of the interview! The Contents Of The Interview Questions About Her Passion: 1. What sparked your passion for marine biology & ocean science? I’m fairly young; however, last summer I was lucky enough to work with the Central Park Zoo. In that role, I dedicated quite a lot of hours, over 200. It was very enjoyable to teach people about conservation, & about what the zoo does. As a part of the zoo, I began advocating for the Hudson Canyon, which is a marine canyon 100 miles southeast of New York, to become a marine sanctuary. I wanted to get involved, which inspired me to create something bigger, & somehow I ended up here! 2. Was there any particular place, person, or moment that assisted in the sparking of your passion? Apart from my time at the Central Park Zoo, I would say that I have always been interested in animals. I have always been interested in paleontology & veterinary studies, & I enjoy it when people come to me & ask about conservation or about what they can do to help. It truly makes me feel satisfied & fulfilled, & makes me feel as if I’m doing something in this world. It’s not necessarily one person or place, but the entire community that inspires me to continue empowering youth to join conservation. 3. What is your favorite marine or terrestrial animal & why? From a young age, my favorite animal has always been the orca! They’re black & white, however, they are far more complex than that appearance-wise, ironically. They are very misunderstood creatures, & are incredibly intelligent. As a species, they have very few human fatalities linked to them, however, there is still this fear circulating about them. I feel that encourages people to try & get a deeper understanding of them, as well as their personalities. 4. What inspired you to take action in the form of your organization? It all started when I was offered the position of ambassador at the Manta Trust, which is a nonprofit organization dedicated to Manta Ray education, research, & conservation. During the initial interview process, my advisor told me that we were allowed to create a project. Right from the get-go, I began thinking about what I could do to make lasting change. I’d been a part of conservation conversations for a long time by this point, & I wanted to create a place where youth could join & all youth could start their projects to contribute to a moment of greater ocean understanding. In wanting to create something that would last, with or without me, I created Dolphin Defenders. Questions About Her Organization: 5. When did you begin your organization, Dolphin Defenders, & how? How large is your team now, & where can people looking to volunteer with you apply? I founded the organization in January 2025. As for current team sizes, our official team recently surpassed 20 members, however, I would say that we have impacted over 500 individuals so far through our various events. If you do wish to check us out, we are currently most active on Instagram, & are preparing to launch our website. 6. Do you mind walking me through the various programs of your organization? One of our most prominent recent programs was our Echoes of the Deep poetry contest, sponsored by the United Nations Decade of Ocean Sciences & Sustainable Development. It was a creative writing contest in which individuals could submit their ocean-inspired poems, stories, or similar works. Along with this, we recently hosted the Global Environmental Youth Forum, which was a forum that brought together youth from around the world in a debate-style stage to discuss various environmental issues. Although we did not agree on everything, everyone was very polite, civil, & formal. In addition to these, we also have our environmental ambassadors program where we empower youth financially, or through advertisements on our social media, & we empower them to create their projects. One of our ambassadors recently won the EarthEcho prize, which offers a year-long mentorship, along with a few thousand dollars. We hope to continue empowering youth to create their projects, & create not just a localized, but a nationwide effect. 7. You recently hosted an Oceanic Poetry Competition titled “Echoes Of The Deep”, in collaboration with the Aldrich Anthology, a Poetry Magazine. Do you mind my asking what inspired you to hold this poetry competition & what insights you & your organization gained from holding it? One way to get youth involved is through art. Art is a huge way to inspire not only creativity, but to inspire community solutions, & form a community of change-makers. We had submissions from individuals who were 17, 16, 15, 14, & the youngest submission was even 8 years old! It wasn’t formal, was very welcoming, & in that way, we can experience how everyone’s ideas come together to form a greater movement of ocean understanding. One of the primary goals in hosting it was to bring youth together from around the world & hear their perspectives as well as relationships with our oceans, & their connections with the water. Due to the fact that it was our first event, we had much organizing & infrastructure to build as an organization, which did make things more difficult due to the amount of trial by error, however, it did work out in the end. About the UN, we have a lot of partnering organizations, which gradually led us to a partnership with the UN. 8. What are your organization's primary goals for 2025 & 2026? Even though we’ve been around for just six months, we have some incredible ideas already. I would say that one of our main goals is to create lasting policy change, particularly through our Marine Bill of Rights, which is a framework for marine protection on a local level. Hopefully, we see permanent change through that framework, & set a precedent for future oceanic protections. In addition to this, we have two in-person events planned, one in collaboration with Sea Shepard as a beach cleanup, & one as a planned marine biological youth summit at the New York Aquarium in August or September. 9. Now, you may not have an answer to this yet, or you may not wish to answer, which is perfectly reasonable & understandable; however, do you intend to pursue marine biology as your career path? I feel that I have a very strong background in marine biology & conservation, from an entrepreneurial perspective, a sustainable finance perspective, & a conservation perspective. It is a massive interest of mine, & I am interested in pursuing it. I’d like to make a lasting change in marine conservation, it’s a balance of individual biology & understanding what is going on in the ocean, & finding innovative solutions to its problems. 10. What has been your biggest triumph or proudest moment concerning your organization so far? This is a very good question. I have had a multitude of proud moments in the organization's history. We have a team of over 20 individuals now, however, we have impacted many more. I think that creating a community is an achievement in it of itself. I think my proudest moment would be winning the National Call for Kindness fellowship, which is a very prestigious fellowship, & allowed me to network with people to create social & environmental change. It was an incredible boost to our organization. With this fellowship, we won 5,000$, which will be used to fund a new program of ours, Mission Manta, & we get 1-on-1 mentoring from their representatives. 11. I’m sure that you have faced just as many challenges & setbacks as you have leaps forward. What has been the biggest hurdle that you have faced in your running of Dolphin Defenders? Additionally, what was the biggest challenge that you faced & how did you overcome it? We’re already at a disadvantage being young, without experience, & formal credentials. It’s difficult for adults to take us seriously, & one of the major problems that we wish to solve. We hope to show that youth will be the ones to bear the burden of all actions related to the environment & climate, so we should have a seat at these tables & a place in these discussions. 12. Do you have any advice for new organizational founders, aspiring marine biologists, young scientists, & those with a passion? I would say that my greatest advice for young people starting to build something is to just start. Start without question, without instruction booklets, all you need is a vision & persistence to keep going. Every startup started somewhere & was built around a vision. If you want to build something, if you want to make a change, all you have to do is start & keep going. 13. Do you have any final words about your organization, marine biology, science communication, or young people making an impact? Stay tuned! Follow our Instagram, & keep updated on what we are up to because we’re going to make a change whether people see it coming or not. Directories / Credits https://www.instagram.com/dolphindefenders?igsh=NTc4MTIwNjQ2YQ== Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

In today's article, we will be discussing the History of Port Arthur, Texas. Port Arthur is a small town on the Northeast coast of Texas. Port Arthur is approximately 90 miles (144.841 kilometers) east of Houston, & 317.1 miles (510.32298 kilometers) south of Dallas. Port Arthur is extremely economically important to Texas, as Motiva Oil Refinery, the largest oil refinery in the U.S, is located in Port Arthur. As the town is located directly on the coast, the town is only approximately 7 feet (2.1336 meters) in elevation. Due to this low elevation & proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, the town is extremely susceptible to hurricanes. The town is primarily located in Jefferson County, however, it does have a small strip of land in the neighbouring Orange County. The town census-designated area is approximately 144.1 square miles (373.21729 square kilometers), 46.61% of which is covered in water. The town's coastlines have a very high amount of marine mammals, which have been written about in the town's newsletter. These marine mammals can be seen around the port or prancing off the coast in the ocean. As of 2025, Port Arthur is 125 years old, however, the history of the town doesn’t start at its official establishment. The history of Port Arthur starts approximately 1,500 years ago with the Atakapaka Native American Aboriginals. Before Port Arthur was settled, the lake that the town is connected to was used as a base for trading by French, English, & Spanish Explorers. These explorers traded mainly with the natives. Some of these explorers attempted to stay, while the majority didn’t. The first attempt at settling the area was in the area of the community of Aurora. Some plots of land were sold, however, the community never took form. With such a vast history, the town has a few different historical museums that document the history of the town. Unfortunately, we will not he interviewing any museum officials for this article. In this article, we will discuss the history of Port Arthur, the documented aboriginals of Port Arthur, the Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect Port Arthur, & the Economic state of Port Arthur. With that being said, let us delve into the history of this sleepy Texas town.  A photograph of Port Arthur's Pleasure Pier being enjoyed by lively groups of young men. Credit to the city of Port Arthur. The Documented History Of Port Arthur Before Colonization  Historical Events From The 1700s  Port Arthur has been inhabited by the Atakapa Native Americans for 1,500 Years. In the 1700’s, Spanish, English, & French sailors ventured to Sabine Lake, which is a lake connected to Port Arthur. This lake quickly became a a popular trading area.  Historical Events From The 1800s The first group of people to be forced to build a town where Port Arthur now stands was an unfortunate group of British Sailors. A small group of British Sailors crash-landed along the coast, & promptly built a shed & a small garden to live in. The group managed to keep from starvation by planting seeds that they had brought from their ship. Unfortunately, this solution didn’t work forever, & the group soon faced starvation. A group of Mexican Soldiers from Mexico City found them before they could become emaciated, however, the soldiers thought that these British sailors were attempting to establish a British Colony in Texas. Try as they might, they were unable to convince the Mexican Soldier that they were not trying to establish a colony. Unfortunately, these sailors were then taken back to Mexico City, thrown in prison, & left to die. The next person to use the land was a man by the name of Jean Lafitte. Jean Lafitte would use the area as a hideaway, & passing commercial ships. The pirate wouldn’t use the town forever, though, & eventually stopped using it. In the 1840s, a small area in the modern-day Historic District of Port Arthur was almost settled. Some plots of land were sold; however, the community never fully took form. Ultimately, the project was abandoned. There are very few records about anything going on until the American Civil War. During the Civil War, the Union Army noticed that the Sabine River was incredibly important, as much of the cotton exported between Texas & Louisiana went through the river. A few different battles were fought over the river, & ultimately, the river was won by the Confederacy. Approximately 350 war prisoners were the result of said battles, along with mass casualties. In the 1890s, Railroad Extraordinaire Arthur Stilwell was readying himself to build a railroad in Galveston. However, according to him, few brownies came & spoke to him, & told him that he shouldn’t build in Galveston. Brownies are British Fairies that will come out at night when the owners of houses are asleep, & then do household tasks, such as cleaning. They are said to enjoy milk & cream, & are not harmless unless insulted. Additionally, they are said to pull harmless pranks on bad Household Servants. Generally, Brownies are regarded as good. These particular Brownies told Stilwell not to build in Galveston, as there would be large floods. Stilwell listened to the brownies, & instead established Port Arthur, & built a railroad terminal there. These alleged brownies would prove to be somewhat correct, as the 1901 Galveston Hurricane would flood the entire area. In 1895, Stilwell began to settle the city with the financial support of various Dutch Investors. The founder of the Kansas City Southern Railroad began envisioning Port Arthur as a southern terminal for his new railroad, & a new center for tourism, & trade. Before Incorporation, the population was still growing quite fast, & the citizens realized that education was a necessity. They decided on March 28th of 1897, to build a small one-room school. They miraculously completed this in one day, through volunteer labor. The town of Port Arthur was officially incorporated in 1898, when the town was officially incorporated. The rest of the historical events concerning Port Arthur will be under the subsection “After Official Incorporation”. After Official Incorporation   Historical Events From The Rest Of The 1800s Port Arthur was officially established in the year 1898. Around this time, Stilwell began digging the Port Arthur Channel, which is a channel leading from Sabine Lake to the Gulf of Mexico. This channel opened in 1899, & was used for shipping the town of Port Arthur. In the same year, Stilwell invited his close friend John. W. Gates, to view the town. Upon arrival, Gates decided he wanted to be a part of this upcoming town, & wanted to develop it. So, He applied & was denied the position on the board of railroads. Gates promptly had Stilwell's interests declared bankrupt, & became the President of the Kansas City Southern Railroad. Despite getting his position in a rather suspicious way, & he genuinely wanted to develop Port Arthur, & push it forward in the economy.  Historical Events From The 1900s Beginning in the early 1900s, pioneers began moving to Port Arthur, & increasing the population rapidly. Homes were being built at a massive rate, streets were being made, & new businesses were added to the town. Additionally, around this time, Stilwell built a hotel, a swimming pool, & an export pier. Stilwell brought 300 Dutch settlers to begin a new life as farmers, whose culture still survives in the nearby town of Nederland. Beginning in 1901, the Petrochemical industry boomed. Subsequently, the economy of the port quickly shifted to serve the needs of the petrochemical industry. In the same year, the Gulf Oil Corporation set up its first oil refinery in the port. Texaco followed soon after, & quickly set up their oil refinery in 1902. Though these oil refineries were experimental, they would go on to be some of the largest oil refineries on earth. These oil refiners would go on to massively boost the economy, & by 1957, Port Arthur was the center for petrochemicals. In 1909, the first hospital in the area was built by Henry W. Gates. This hospital was known as Mary Gates Hospital. In the same year, Gates founded the Port Arthur Business College, which is modernly known as Lamar State College-Port Arthur. As education became an increasingly popular issue in the U.S, more schools began to be built in Port Arthur. The first of which was Webster Elementary School, built in 1909. The next one to be built was Port Arthur High School in 1911. The last large school to be built was Franklin School, which began construction in 1917 but was not opened until 1919. This school had a massive auditorium, with a maximum capacity of 750. This made the school not only valuable to students, but also valuable to the community. Many theatre performances, as well as lectures, were held on this stage. The school would also use this auditorium for educational films, having at least 1 per week. In addition to the auditorium, the school had 2 separate gymnasiums, one for young men, & one for young women. Physical workshops, such as metal shops, were a part of the school’s curriculum. Modern-day Schools in Port Arthur use a structure of school days known as the Gary System, which is designed so that students don’t get muscle cramps from sitting at their desks, as well as have plenty of time for recreation & study. When World War 1 Struck, large amounts of rice, cotton, wheat, & lumber were sent to be exported from Port Arthur through the Sabine Canal. At this time, the canal was very small, & not built to handle so much commercial traffic. To handle this problem, the canal was to be made 150 feet (45.72 meters) wide, as well as 50 feet (15.24 meters) deep. Thankfully, Port Arthur was not affected by any major damages after this point, & modernly houses the largest Oil Refinery in the United States of America.  The Aboriginals Of Port Arthur The Atakapa Indigenous Aboriginals The Atakapaka are an indigenous group of people who have inhabited a strip of land that borders the Gulf Coast, located between Louisiana & Texas. The name “Atakapa” comes from the Choctaw word for “Eaters of Men”, as this tribe would allegedly practice Cannibalism. It is unclear whether or not this was for sustenance or religious purposes, though. They spoke the Atapakan Language, which is now extinct. This language was a language Isolate, & is not similar to any surrounding tribes' languages. This group inhabited the saltwater Bayous of Western Louisiana & East Texas until the late 1800s. It is not known how long they have inhabited the land, but archeological studies suggest that they have lived on the land since the beginning of the A.D period. Individual villages of Atakapans were composed of small bands that would move around in a set area to hunt & gather more effectively as the seasons passed. The alligator was an important creature to them, as this creature would give them oil, a large amount of meat, & hides. The oil of an alligator can be used as a natural insect repellent, which is useful in the heat of Texas & Louisiana during the summer. These individual villages would trade with other Natives, as well as English, Spanish, & possibly French Explorers. These people were said to be short, & dark skinned. Their Clothing was largely made of Buffalo Hides, & largely consisted of breechcloths.  For children, they would use damp bark for baby carriers, & Spanish Moss for diapers. A custom that was kept amongst Atakapan men was that fathers would rename themselves at the birth of their firstborn son, or rename themselves if their son became notable. Additionally, they believed that if a man died from snake venom, he would be denied an afterlife. Extremely little is known of the Atakapan religion, though their creation myth has been preserved. The Atakapans believed that man was cast out from an oyster shell onto land. Unfortunately, the Atakapans were virtually extinct in 2025. The population of the Atakapans dropped massively, mainly due to disease. By 1805, there were only 175 known Atakapans left, most living in Louisiana. Unfortunately, by the beginning of the 1900s, there were only 8 Atakapans left. Both the Language, & the People are extinct as of 2025.  The Most Destructive Natural & Man-Caused Disasters To Affect Port Arthur Disaster No. 1: Hurricane Harvey On August 25th of 2017, a Category 4 Hurricane named Hurricane Harvey made landfall in Southern Texas. This hurricane lasted from August 17th to September 3rd of 2017. The hurricane caused approximately 20 inches worth of rain in Port Arthur, & turned the streets into streams. Many people were stuck in their homes, & needed assistance, including a 99-year-old man. A large portion of these people had to climb onto their roofs to get away from the floodwater. Over 100 people were taken into shelters after the rain had ceased, & thankfully, no one lost their lives. This event was undoubtedly one of the most destructive disasters to affect the town in recent years. The Economic State Of Port Arthur The economy of Port Arthur is relatively stable, & is rising. The main industry of Port Arthur is Petrochemicals, the largest exporter of which is Motiva Oil Refinery. This refinery is so large that 94 percent of all cargo going through Port Arthur is petroleum-related. Additionally, Motiva Oil Refinery is the largest in the United States of America. Though it is the largest oil refinery, it is not the largest employer in the town. As of 2021, the average household income is 42,933 U.S.D. Unfortunately, the area has a rather high poverty rate, with 25.8 percent of the population below the poverty line. This number is slowly declining, as more employers, & better opportunities come to Port Arthur.  A photograph of Motiva Oil Refinery, the second-largest oil refinery in the United States, producing approximately 720,000 barrels per day. It is responsible for driving much economic growth in Port Arthur. Credit to Motiva Oil. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Jefferson County, Texas History Of Port Arthur”, Written by Leland L. Lacy, & Published at an Unclear Date. Published by Genealogy Trails. Retrieval Date: December 5th, 2023.   http://www.genealogytrails.com/tex/gulfcoast/jefferson/history_portarthur.html Citation No. 2: “A Brief History Of Port Arthur”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Port Arthur Bureau of Visitors. Retrieval Date: December 5th, 2023.  https://visitportarthurtx.com/about/history-of-port-arthur/ Citation No. 3: “Atakapa Indians”, Written By Dorothy Couser, & Published on July 1st of 1995. Published By the Texas State Historical Association. Retrieval Date: December 5th, 2023.  https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/atakapa-indians Citation No. 4: “Port Arthur Faces Harvey Flooding Disaster, 'Our Whole City Is Underwater', Written by Jonah Engel Bromwich, & Published on August 30th of 2017. Published by the New York Times. Retrieval Date: December 5th, 2023.  https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/30/us/port-arthur-flooding.html Citation No. 5: “Port Arthur, TX”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Data USA. Retrieval Date: December 5th, 2023.  https://datausa.io/profile/geo/port-arthur-tx Citation No. 6: “Port of Port Arthur”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Comptrollers of Texas. Retrieval Date: December 5th, 2023.  https://comptroller.texas.gov/economy/economic-data/ports/snap-port-arthur.php Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors  SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Photographed above Dr. Dení Ramírez Macías, standing determinedly as ever. Credit to Dr. Dení Ramírez Macías. This article is part of our collection known as the Marine Hall of Distinction. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who have served marine biology and oceanography the most. We do this to commemorate these marine biologists and show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. Today's marine scientist is Dr. Dení Ramírez Macías. Dr. Dení Ramírez Macías is one of the world’s foremost experts on Whale Sharks, & one of the leading marine biologists, & scientists in all of Mexico. She is well known for her work with the Save Our Seas Foundation, her organization Whale Shark Mexico, & her expertise on Whale Shark Genetics. For her efforts, she has been added to the Women Divers Hall of Fame, an extraordinarily prestigious feat. Dr. Ramírez Macías has served our oceans honourably, in countless ways. In today's article, we are going to delve into her formative years & education, her personal life & career, & her achievements, accomplishments as well as her awards. With that being said, let us delve into the marvellous career of Dr. Dení Ramírez Macías! Her Formative Years & Education Dr. Dení Ramírez Macías was born on May 9th, 1978, in Mexico City, Mexico. Both of her parents had a great appreciation of the ocean, both having scuba-diving passions of their own. They would often take her on vacation to the coastal regions of Mexico, lending a foundation to her love of the ocean. One day, as a child, while on the beach with her family, she watched a Sea Turtle lay its eggs one by one. Young Dení was fascinated by this, although soon sad, as local people soon came & took the eggs. This inspired her to contribute to conservation, & to protect our oceans, & would spark her desire to save our seas. When she was 7 years old, she did her first scuba dive in Chankanaab, Cozumel, Mexico, off the coast of Yucatan. The experience opened the beauty of the underwater world to her, & showed her all that the ocean held. Young Dení saw vibrant fish, massive rays, & a thriving coral reef. At this point, she made up her mind to become a marine biologist, & research her own boat. Sadly, she did not have the opportunity to return to her beloved Chankanaab Park until she was 17 years of age, at which point she noticed something horrible. The gorgeous reef that she once indulged in as a girl was replaced by a badly damaged one, & the troves of tropical fish were replaced by sparse populations. This further inspired her to become a marine biologist, & sparked a fire in her that led her to become one of the most prominent marine biologists in Mexico. She pursued her dream by beginning her bachelor’s degree in Marine Biology at the University of La Paz, Mexico, graduating in 2002. Soon afterwards, she moved on to her Master's Degree in the same subject, at Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas (Interdisciplinary Center for Marine Sciences), earning her M.S. with honours in 2005. During her Master’s Degree, she did important research on the subject of the genetics of Whale Shark populations within the Sea of Cortez, also known as the Gulf of California. This study was the first of its kind, showcasing the prominence of this research. During this research, she stumbled upon an intriguing phenomenon. Juvenile Whale Sharks routinely migrate out of the Gulf of California, returning year after year, only stopping when they are adults. This begs the question of what causes them to return, & what causes them to suddenly leave? As each shark has a unique colouration & pattern adorning its back, it allows you to name specific individuals, which she did. One female individual in particular, whom she affectionately called Tiki-Tiki. Tiki-Tiki enjoyed diving deep in the ocean, & unfortunately, her tag fell off. When Dení encountered her again, she quizzed “Why don’t you just tell me what you were doing down there?”, illuminating her affection for the species, & connection to individual whale sharks which she has gained over the years. Finally, she successfully earned her Doctor of Science in 2010, from the Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste (The Biological Research Center of the Northwest, also known as CIBNOR), at La Páz, Mexico. Her P.hD was on the subject of Global Whale Shark genetics, taking her to the Philippines, & allowing her to collaborate with numerous whale shark researchers around the world. Her Personal Life & Career Dení always had a passion for the environment, & always had a deep desire to protect it. So, she began by cleaning beaches with friends, removing debris hazardous to marine animals & beachgoers alike. Soon afterwards, she conceived the idea of ConCiencia Mexico, an organization which would ultimately focus on Environmental Education, & conscientiousness amongst people as it relates to the environment. Recently, she has begun doing research in collaboration with the Save Our Seas Foundation, & EcóOceania, to discover more about the Whale Shark populations off the coast of Peru, as there has been an absence of Whale Shark mentions in Peruvian Literature. In order to do this, she visits the North of Peru to interview fishermen about Whale Shark sightings off the coast of Peru, particularly in the Punta Pizarro, Zorritos, Acapulco, Punta Sal, & Cancas areas. Due to their large size, adult Whale Sharks in these areas are feared as many misunderstand their curiosity for aggression. Sadly, few fishermen understand their docile, & relatively friendly nature. Through these interviews, she is also attempting to ascertain whether these communities have potential for Eco-Tourism through these Whale Shark populations, in order to build more industry & attract more resources. Eco-tourism is a kind of tourism explicitly done to tour, enjoy, or interact with the ecosystems of a particular region. This project is called the “Giants of Peru”, project. In addition to this, for this project, she is attempting to see if there is a correlation between whale shark populations in Mexico & Peru, & attempting to see if this is one of the places where all of those juvenile whale sharks from Baja California venture off to. Her Achievements, Accomplishments, & Awards 1. She founded her own nonprofit organization, ConCiencia Mexico, which focuses on the environment of Mexico, conserving it, educating citizens about it, & similar things. 2. She leads the “Giants of our Sea”, program for the Save Our Sea Foundation in Peru. 3. She has orchestrated over 5 research studies, all on the subjects of Whale Sharks. 4. She has published a book in Spanish about the genetics of Whale Sharks, titled “Genética del tiburón ballena y estimación de abundancia en México”, translating to “Whale shark genetics and abundance estimation in Mexico”. 5. In La Paz, Mexico, in Baja California Sur, she has been working with the government to develop a Tourism Management plan. Through this plan, she will attract more people to the reason, shed more light on the plight of Whale Sharks, inspire interest in the species, & inspire people to conserve them. 6. She has had at least 4 research stays abroad at the time of publishing, 2 in 2007, & 2 in 2008. Her research has taken her all around the world to Texas, Pennsylvania, Australia, & the Philippines! Directories / Credits Citation 1: "Project Leader: Dení Ramírez-Macías", Written by Dení Ramírez Macías, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Save Our Seas Foundation. https://saveourseas.com/project-leader/deni-ramirez-macias/ Citation 2: “Dení Ramírez Macías: Scientist Conservationist”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Whale Shark Mexico. https://www.whalesharkmexico.com/who-we-are/ Citation 3: “Dení Ramírez Macías, Ph.D.”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Women Divers Hall Of Fame. https://www.wdhof.org/members/deni-ramirez-macias-ph-d Citation 4: “Dr. Deni Ramirez Macias”, Written by Dení Ramírez Macías, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Independent Academia. https://independent.academia.edu/DeníRamírezMacías/CurriculumVitae Citation 5: “Dení Ramírez-Macías’s research while affiliated with BCS and other places” Curated by ResearchGate at varying dates. Credit to Research Gate. https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Deni-Ramirez-Macias-57805839 Citation No. 6: “Jumping Into the Deep End with Whale Sharks in Hawaii”, Written by Karla Lant, & Published on September 25th, 2018. Published by Fond Riest. https://www.fondriest.com/news/jumping-into-the-deep-end-with-whale-sharks-in-hawaii.htm Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa