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In today’s article, we shall discuss the history of Tokyo Bay, a lovely bay in the south of Japan. Tokyo Bay is a large bay that is located next to the cities of Tokyo & Yokohama at the northern end, & Yokosuka at the southern end. It is extremely industrialized, with many harbors, & commercial districts along its shore. The bay rests in the northern Pacific Ocean, on the island of Honshu. It connects to the Pacific Ocean through the Uraga channel. Though the bay has an average depth of 130 feet, it can become over 1,500 feet deep in certain areas. The area as well as the bay itself is well known in film, as it is often the place where the fictional kaiju “Godzilla”, emerges from. Godzilla is a fictional Japanese monster, created by Toho Studios in the 1950’s.   Historically, the bay has been used for trade, & as a strategic location during war. Islands in the bay both artificial & natural have been used to store artillery during battle, & have been used as fortresses. In addition to being useful for war, it was the historic center of fishing. Until industrialization at the beginning of the 20th century, Tokyo Bay was the main area for the fishing industry in Japan. It was a major source of shellfish, fish, & many other marine creatures. Unfortunately, this fishing activity began declining at the beginning of the 1900s, before ultimately ceasing after World War 2.  The bay is extremely biodiverse, with animals of many varieties living both in its waters & around its shore. One of the strangest of these animals is the Goblin Shark (Mitsukurina Owstoni). To those who wish to learn more, we published an article about this creature on August 20th, 2024. To find this article, please type “Mitsukurina Owstoni”, in the search function of our website. The bay spans 2 prefectures, from the Kanagawa Prefecture to the Chiba Prefecture. It has an area of approximately 580 square miles (1502.19 kilometers). At the time of publishing, Tokyo Bay is the most industrialized area in all of Japan, as well as the most populated.  In this article, we shall be discussing the Documented History of Tokyo Bay, the Indigenous Aboriginals of Tokyo Bay, the most destructive man-caused & natural disasters, the economy of Tokyo Bay, & the rivers of Tokyo Bay. With that being said, let us delve into this beautiful serene bay.  The Documented History Of Tokyo Bay  History from 1600 to the 1800’s Tokugawa Ieyasu made Tokyo (Then called Edo) the de facto capital of Japan in the early 1600’s, and by 1700 Edo grew to become one of the largest cities in the world.  The people of Edo, Yokohama, and other cities on Tokyo Bay’s shore made use of Tokyo Bay for fishing and trade.  Edo’s people also practiced advanced (for the time) wastewater recycling and management, reducing the amount of pollution entering Tokyo  Bay. History From The 1800’s  In the years 1852 & 1853, Tokyo Bay hosted the Perry Expedition, an expedition led by the United States Naval Corps to negotiate with the Tokugawa Shogunate. At this time the Tokugawa Shogunate, the effective reigning government of Japan, was very hostile towards foreigners. When the expedition was first launched, there was a 220-year-old isolation policy in place, which prohibited foreign trade almost completely. The Perry Expedition was considered to be a key way to open trade with Japan, & encourage the government to allow more foreign trade. While the main goal of the expedition was to open Japan to trade with America, ships also aimed to survey the coast of Japan, & further explore Japanese Waters. The expedition first began in 1852, with an American Ship sailing from Virginia to Japan. The ship reached the Uraga Channel on July 8th, 1852, where its captain attempted to sail into Tokyo Bay. This was met with great hostility from the Japanese, who immediately surrounded the American ship. Through a 6-day negotiation process, the American ship was allowed to land near modern-day Yokosuka. A letter sent by current President Fillmore arrived during this time. The ship left after 3 days bound for China, promising to return soon to get their reply to the president.  Unfortunately, soon after the Americans left, the Shogun fell ill & promptly passed away. He was quickly succeeded by his young son, however this left the government in a harebrained state.  The Americans would return on February 13th of the following year with a fleet of eight new ships, with a ninth soon to follow. They sailed into the small village of Yokohama, where a hall had been erected to aid in negotiations. Negotiations lasted approximately 3 weeks, with many state gifts being exchanged between the American & Japanese governments. These gifts included a small steam locomotive, one hundred gallons of whiskey, & books about the United States by the Americans, & porcelain goblets, a small collection of sea shells, silk garments, & bronze ornaments by the Japanese.  In the end, an agreement was reached, & Japan became open to trade with Americans.  Later trade agreements were reached with many other nations. As mentioned before, Tokyo Bay only has 1 natural island artificial island, however, it also has many small artificial islands. One of these islands, Odaiba, was constructed around the time of the Perry Expedition in order to fend off foreign ships. Its name translates to fort, or forts with cannon. At the time of its construction, Odaiba Island had several mounted guns & cannons to defend against foreign attacks. After the period of Japanese isolation, Odaiba island was largely undeveloped, until the 1990’s. Historical Events From the 1900’s The cities along Tokyo Bay expanded enormously during the 20th century.  Yokohama’s population surpassed 3 million, and Tokyo became the world’s most populous city.  Ocean trade passing through Tokyo Bay increased exponentially. In 1989, work began on the Tokyo Bay Aqualine. The Tokyo Bay Aqualine is a combination of 2 underwater tunnels, & a large bridge. These underwater tunnels run underneath Tokyo Bay. The bridge & underwater tunnels were opened in 1997, & run from Kawasaki to Kisarazu, across Tokyo Bay. In total, the line cost 1.4 billion Japanese Yen, & took 23 years of planning, as well as 9 years of construction.  In the late 1990’s & the early 2000’s, the island of Odaiba was repurposed as a commercial, residential, & recreational area. Several entertainment companies decided to move their headquarters to the area, most namely Fuji Television. Soon after, Tokyo Big Sight, a large Exhibition hall, was built on the island.  The D1 Grand Prix Motorcar Drifting Series, one of the largest car drifting events in the world, was hosted in Odaiba in the years 2004, & 2018.  Historical Events From The 2000’s Odaiba hosted multiple events for the 2020 Tokyo Summer Olympics. The area hosted several Beach Volleyball Events, Parts of Triathlon Events, & Marathon Swimming.  The Indigenous Aboriginal Japanese Of Tokyo Bay  The “Jomon”, the first, aboriginal, native Japanese Peoples have inhabited Tokyo Bay for thousands of years.  It is not clear how Tokyo Bay impacted them, or if there were any variations between the aboriginal Japanese of Tokyo Bay, & the aboriginal Japanese inhabiting the rest of South Japan.  The Jomon do seem to have been skilled fishermen and made use of seashells in crafts.  The Jomon near Tokyo Bay seem to have eaten shellfish, likely collected from Tokyo Bay.  They also “exploited” the whales and dolphins living in Tokyo Bay.   The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect Tokyo Bay  Unfortunately, there are not many major disasters to have originated from Tokyo Bay. However, typhoons have sometimes arrived in Tokyo Bay from further south.   Earthquakes have also sometimes caused tsunamis in Tokyo Bay.    The Economy Of Tokyo Bay  Tokyo Bay houses some of the most important ports in Japan. The bay houses the Port of Chiba, the Port of Yokohama, the Port of Tokyo, & the Port of Kisarazu, which at the time of publishing, are some of the busiest ports in all of Japan, & Asia.    The Rivers Of Tokyo Bay   The Yōrō River  The Yōrō River is a river that flows into Tokyo Bay from the Chiba Prefecture. In total, the river is approximately 45.6 miles long (73.38609 kilometers). The river is well known for its hiking trails, scenic landscapes, waterfalls, & onsen hot spring. The river is also important for agriculture, as the middle & lower parts of the river have been integrated into rice fields.   The Obitsu River  The Obitsu River is a river that flows into Tokyo Bay. In total, the river is approximately 55 miles (88.5139 kilometers) in length. The mouth of the river is home to the only remaining tidal flat in Tokyo Bay, which is extremely important to the ecology of the Bay. In 2012, it was identified as being home to an endangered species of Crab.    The Arakawa River  The Arakawa is one of the longest rivers that flows into Tokyo Bay, with an astounding length of 107 miles (172.2 kilometers). The bay flows south from Mount Kobushi into Tokyo Bay. This river is one of the major sources of Tap Water for the people of Tokyo.    The Edo River The Edo River is a river that flows into Tokyo Bay. It flows between the Tokyo, Chiba, & Saitama Prefectures. It is approximately 37 miles in length.    Directories / Credits   Citation No. 1: “Brief Summary of the Perry Expedition to Japan, 1853”, Written by Unknown, & Published on August 23rd, 2017. Retrieval Date: June 30th, 2024. https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/b/brief-summary-perry-expedition-japan-1853.html   Citation No. 2: “The United States & the Opening to Japan, 1853”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the United States Department Of State. Retrieval Date: June 30th, 2024. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/opening-to-japan   Citation No. 3: “Tokyo Bayside Story: History of Odaiba”, Written by Unknown, & Published on June 4th, 2020. Published by WAttention. Retrieval Date: June 30th, 2024. https://wattention.com/tokyo-bayside-story-odaiba/   Citation No. 4: “The Tokyo Bay Area’s Development: Lessons to be Learned” Written by Wenda Ma, & Published on October 22nd, 2018. Published by the Hong Kong Trade Development Council. Retrieval Date: June 30th, 2024. https://research.hktdc.com/en/article/NDAwMDc1MjU2   Citation No. 5: “Yoro Valley”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Japan National Tourism Agency. Retrieval Date: June 30th, 2024.  https://www.japan.travel/en/spot/1535/   Citation No. 6: “Obitsu River Mouth & Tidal Flat”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Guidoor. Retrieval Date: June 30th, 2024. https://www.guidoor.jp/en/places/5378   Citation No. 7: “Exploitation of whale and dolphin resources in the Jomon period in Tokyo Bay”, Written by Tanabe, Yumiko.  Published by Unknown.  Retrieval Date: Aug. 30, 2024. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377817438_Exploitation_of_whale_and_dolphin_resources_in_the_Jomon_period_in_Tokyo_Baydongjingwanyanandeyuniokeruyingwenshidainojingleiliyong   Citation No. 8: ”Collections of Morse from the Shell Mounds of Omori”, Written by Immamura, Keiji.  Published by UMDB Tokyo.  Retrieval Date: Aug. 30, 2024.  http://umdb.um.u-tokyo.ac.jp/DKankoub/Publish_db/2000dm2k/english/02/02-03.html Citation No. 9: Japan Meteorological Society, Retrieval Date Aug. 30, 2024, https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler   Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Marine Biological Hall Of Distinction: Sir John Murray This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th.  Today’s marine biologist is the highly respected & esteemed, John Murray. John Murray was a Scottish-Canadian Marine Biologist, Oceanographer, & Limnologist who is widely considered to be the Father of Modern Oceanography.  Sir John Murray is widely acclaimed his involvement in the Challenger Expedition of 1872, in which he & several naval officers, scientists, & photographers surveyed approximately 79,280 miles of ocean, laying the foundation for modern oceanography & discovering the Challenger Deep along the way. The expedition lasted 4 years, & in the final reports, it was revealed that 4,000 previously unknown species were cataloged.  In addition to his work on the Challenger Expedition, he is well known for his work on surveying freshwater Lochs in Scotland. Over the course of a few years & with the assistance of 50 people, he & his crew took 60,000 depth soundings to make complete maps of various different major lochs.  In this article, we shall be discussing John Murray’s Formative Years & Education, John Murray’s Career & Later Life, & finally John Murray’s Achievements, Accomplishments, Awards, & Honorables. With that being said, let us delve into this esteemed & respected Scottish-Canadian Marine Biologist. His Formative Years & Education Sir John Murray was born on March 3rd, 1841, in what is modernly Cobourg, Ontario, Canada. He was born to Robert Murray, & Elizabeth Macfarlane. He spent his childhood in Canada, before moving to Stirlingshire, Scotland, to live with his Grandfather to study Medicine. He studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh, where he met Robert L. Stevenson, the author of “The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll & Mr. Hyde”. During his time as a medical student, he attempted to conduct multiple medical studies, which were seemingly unsuccessful. As a naturally exploratory & inquisitive man, he had issues dealing with the how scheduled & regimented everything was. For this reason, he never graduated from medical school, however that would not hold him back in anyway. Upon leaving university, he earned a position as a ships surgeon.  His Career & Later Life Annoyed with his studies at University, Murray became the Ships Surgeon for vessel Jan Mayen for a short time in 1868. During the 7 month voyage he worked on the Jan Mayen, he collected various marine animals, monitored environmental conditions, & tracked things such as tides & currents. Upon returning home he returned to the University of Edinburgh, where he finished a degree in geology. Earning necessary skills as a naturalist from his position aboard the Jan Mayen, he was invited to be the Third Naturalist for the Challenger expedition. During the planning stages of the voyage he worked closely with Charles Wyville Thompson. The expedition began in 1872, & ended after four years in 1876. Upon returning to Scotland, he was put in charge of editing & processing all the data collected from the expedition. It took him approximately 15 years of continuous editing, & in the end he was able to publish “The Scientific Results of The Voyage of HMS Challenger” in 50 different volumes. Approximately 4,717 never-before-seen species were discovered on this voyage. In honour of the expedition, he named his home the “Challenger Lodge”, which is modernly a Palliative Care Center operated by Hospice.  In the year 1884, John Murray established the Marine Laboratory in Granton Edinburgh, which was one of the first marine biological laboratories on the British Isles. Many collaborative projects would take place here, often with international scientists from America or the rest of Europe. During this time, he would also explore the sea lochs of Scotland in a specially constructed boat, named the Medusa.  In 1896, he was elected to the Fishery Board for Scotland, where he would serve until 1898.  Murray married his wife Isabel Henderson on January 24th, 1889, & had a son with her on the 12th June, 1894. He named his son John Challenger Murray, after the Challenger Expedition.  A project to survey all Freshwater Lochs in Scotland had been ongoing since 1897, however it was dramatically accelerated in 1901 when the man he was working on the project with, Frederick Pullar, was tragically killed in an Ice Skating Accident. Pullar was ice skating on a large lake with many people, & when the ice cracked, chaos erupted. He spotted a young woman who was drowning, & did his best to save her, however unfortunately both he & the young woman drowned. Greatly distraught by this incident, he prepared to abandon the project all together. However, Pullar’s father, Laurance Pullar, offered to pay Murray £10,000 pounds to finish the surveys. Murray accepted, & with the help of 50 people over the course of 4 years, surveyed almost every freshwater loch in Scotland. He & his team conducted more then 60,000 soundings of the lochs, & published their final results in the report “Bathymetrical surveys of the freshwater lochs of Scotland”.  In the year 1910, he convinced  the Norwegian Government to allow him to borrow the research vessel Micheal Sars for another oceanographic expedition, on the condition that he paid for all the expenses to furnish the ship. He would use the Micheal Sars to explore the deep ocean & the ocean floor in the North Atlantic with fellow scientist Johan Hjort, & would publish the findings from these missions in the book “The Depths Of The Ocean”. In this book, he revealed that the ocean floor is not void of life as thought previously, & is instead teeming with all sorts of marine creatures. Additionally, he revealed the existence of several new deep sea octopi, one of which he named after himself. This deep sea octopus is modernly named Cirrothauma murrayi, commonly known as the Blind Cirrate Octopus.  John Murray unfortunately passed away in a vehicle crash when his car overturned in Edinburgh, near his home. His death date is March 16th, 1914. He was buried in Dean Cemetery, Edinburgh, with his headstone reading “Sir John Murray, KCB, Oceanographer. Born 3rd, March 1841, Died 16th, March 1914. He is buried alongside his wife, Isabel Henderson.  Sir John Murray dedicated his life to the study of Marine Biology, Oceanography, & Limnology. His work is still very relevant to this day, & his contributions will not be forgotten or disregarded. His Achievements, Accomplishments, Awards, & Honorables Of Sir John Murray Sir John Murray has at the time of publishing, 26 Taxa named in his honour. In his life time, he was the President both the Scottish Natural History Society, & the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. He received at least 13 different medals in his life, for things varying from his work in Oceanography to his work in Geology.  He founded the Alexander Agassiz Medal, in honour of his close friend Alexander Agassiz.  He helped to lead the Challenger Expedition, one of the most influential scientific expeditions in all of modern history.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Sir John Murray (1841 - 1914)”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Records of Scotland. Retrieval Date: August 5th, 2024.  https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/research/learning/hall-of-fame/hall-of-fame-a-z/murray-john-oceanographer Citation No. 2: “John Murray, the Sir of the ocean deep & the Dr. Jekyll of Oceanography”, Written by Unknown & Published on March 1st, 2021. Published by the European Marine Biological Resource Center. Retrieval Date: August 5th, 2024.  https://www.embrc.eu/newsroom/news/john-murray-sir-ocean-deep-and-dr-jekyll-oceanography Citation No. 3: “Scientist Of The Day: John Murray”, Written by Doctor William B. Ashworth Junior, & Published on March 3rd, 2015. Published by the Linda Hall Library. Retrieval Date: August 5th, 2024.  https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/john-murray/ Citation No. 4: “Bathymetrical Survey of Freshwater Lochs of Scotland, 1897 - 1909” Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Library of Scotland. Retrieval Date: August 5th, 2024.  https://maps.nls.uk/bathymetric/biographies.html Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler The Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

In today’s article, we shall be discussing the stunning body of water known as Tokyo Bay. Tokyo Bay is a large bay that is located next to the cities of Tokyo & Yokohama at the northern end, & Yokosuka at the southern end. It is extremely industrialized, with many harbours, & commercial districts along its shore. The bay rests in the northern Pacific Ocean, on the island of Honshu. Though the bay has an average depth of 130 feet, it can become over 1,500 feet deep in certain areas. The area as well as the bay itself is well known in film, as it is often the place were the fictional kaiju “Godzilla”, emerges from. Godzilla is a fictional Japanese Monster, created by Toho Studios in the 1950’s.    Historically, the bay has been used for trade, & as a strategic location during war. Islands in the bay both artificial & natural have been used to store artillery during battle, & have been used as fortresses.    The bay is extremely biodiverse, with animals of many varieties living both in its waters & around its shore. One of the strangest of these animals, is the Goblin Shark (Mitsukurina Owstoni). To those who wish to learn more, we published an article about this creature on August 20th, 2024. To find this article, please type “Mitsukurina owstoni”, in the search function of our website.    In addition to their coastal & deep sea environments, Tokyo Bay has beautiful seaweed forests. A seaweed forest is a dense aggregation of seaweed, that provides a unique environment to marine animals. These specific seaweed forests are the ideal habitat for a prized kind of sea snail, known as the abalone. Abalone is prized for both its shell & its meat, & is a major source of income for many Japanese fishermen.    In this article, we will be delving into the salinity, tides, temperatures, marine geography, & depth Of Tokyo Bay, The Marine Environments Of Tokyo Bay, The Marine Flora & Fauna Of Tokyo Bay, & How Ocean Acidification as well as Rising Oceanic Temperatures are affecting Tokyo Bay. With that being said, let us delve into this beautiful Japanese Bay.   The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Depth Of Tokyo Bay  The Salinity Of Tokyo Bay can range from 32 to 29.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1000 gram increments of water, & for every 1000 grams of water, a certain amount is salt. This measurement is called Parts Per Thousand, or Practical Salinity Units. There are not many known Brine Pools in Tokyo Bay, nor are there many salt deposits.    The tidal charts for Tokyo Bay may be found on a multitude of websites, including: https://www.windfinder.com , https://www.tide-forecast.com , https://www.tideschart.com , & https://www.tidetime.org . Generally, the tides do not go over 3.57 meters high, & don’t go below -1.5 meters.    The oceanic temperatures can be found on similar websites, such as: https://www.tideschart.com , & https://www.seatemperature.org . Using information provided by these charts, the approximate yearly average temperature is 66.883333333333° Fahrenheit (19.3796296296294486° Celsius). Using a wetsuit guide, it is recommended that a person uses a wetsuit of 2 to 3 millimeters in thickness. The bay is safe for swimming, however swimming is prohibited in most areas, except for select beaches. The waters are not very polluted, & are safe for oceanic sports. Although there is quite a lot of tourism in the surrounding areas, there isn’t as much tourism to see the bay itself.    Tokyo Bay lacks sea mounts, & only has 1 natural island, that being Sarushima. The bay can get extremely deep, with some areas reaching over 2,000 feet deep. The average depth is approximately 140 feet deep.    The Marine Environments Of Tokyo Bay    Ecosystem Type No. 1: Seaweed Forests  A Seaweed Forest is a dense aggregation of Seaweed, similar to terrestrial forests. Tokyo Bay has beautiful Seaweed Forests, which provide a space for hundreds of interesting marine species. Unfortunately it is unknown which species of Seaweed that the forest is made of.    These seaweed forests are slowly decreasing in size, & have vanished in certain areas completely. The reason for this decline is rising oceanic temperatures, which simply isn’t compatible with the seaweed. In certain areas, they are being replaced by a new ecosystem, that being coral reefs.    Ecosystem Type No. 2: Intertidal Zones Intertidal zones are located along the coastlines, & are exposed to air at low tide. These zones are where the ocean meets the shoreline, & occasionally have tide-pools located along them. Many marine animals from Sea Stars to Japanese Littleneck Clams, may be found in these areas.    Ecosystem Type No. 3: Fringing Coral Reefs Coral reefs are considered to be one of the main hubs for all marine life, however they are an unwelcome surprise for local Japanese Ecology. Historically coral reefs have not been seen in the bay, however with modern temperatures climbing, the bay is becoming a more suitable environment for tropical corals.  There are various different kinds of coral reefs, the most important of which are atoll, barrier, & fringing. The specific kind of coral reefs in Tokyo bay are Fringing Coral Reefs. Fringing Coral Reefs grow directly against the coastline, & do not have a section of ocean between them as a barrier.  Coral reefs are mass structures of coral polyps, typically located along the ocean floor. The Marine Flora Of Tokyo Bay  Unfortunately, it is not clear what kind of Marine Flora live in Tokyo Bay.  We can only say that Sargassum Fusiforme lives there, because our field agents found it on Tokyo Bay's shores. The Marine Fauna Of Tokyo Bay Although Tokyo Bay is very biodiverse, however we do not have much information on the animals in the bay. There is very little public information available about the fauna in the bay, & there have been no animal surveys conducted. For this reason, we cannot provide any information about the Marine Fauna Of Tokyo Bay.     How Ocean Acidification & Rising Oceanic Temperatures Are Affecting Tokyo Bay Ocean acidification is a phenomenon in which the pH level in the ocean decreases, causing a higher level of acidity. Oceanic Acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, & deforestation, for the past 150 years.  When carbon dioxide contacts sea water, it forms carbonic acid.  Carbonic acid gives off positive H+ ions, which causes increased oceanic H+ concentrations & decreased oceanic Ph. When the ocean has decreased Ph, it creates a more acidic environment, which is extremely hostile to many marine species. These conditions that will eat at the shells of bivalves, stress out & eventually bleach coral, & utterly destroy seagrass patches.    Both ocean acidification & Rising oceanic temperatures are negatively affecting Tokyo Bay. One of the major issues caused by Rising Oceanic Temperatures, is the Seaweed Forest Decline. The high oceanic temperatures seen today are not compatible with Seaweed, causing quite a lot of Seaweed to die. When Seaweed Forests die, many animals lose their habitat, forcing them into population decline, & closer to being endangered.    Rising Oceanic Temperatures are also ushering in a new Ecosystem for Tokyo Bay, that being Coral Reefs. Coral Larvae from farther south floated into Tokyo Bay, & laid themselves in the sand. These larvae grew & reproduced, creating the Coral Reefs in Tokyo Bay Today. These coral reefs are bringing with them many tropical fish such as Lionfish, which create competition with the native fish. Overall, these reefs provide a habitat for invasive species, decrease resources for Seaweed Forests & the animals in them, & are not a part of the natural fauna.    Directories / Credits   Citation No. 1: “Tokyo Bay”, Written by Unknown, & Published on July 20th, 1998. Published by Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieval Date: July 22nd, 2024.  https://www.britannica.com/place/Tokyo-Bay   Citation No. 2: “Wetsuit thickness & temperature guide”, Written By Mark Evans, & Published On April 24th, 2023, at 3:05 PM. Published By Scuba Divers Magazine. Retrieval Date: July 22nd, 2024. https://www.scubadivermag.com/wetsuit-thickness-and-temperature-guide/#Scuba_diving_wetsuits   Citation No. 3: “Tokyo Bay’s Seaweed Forests - & The Prized Abalone That Live In Them - Disappear” Written by Justin McCurry, & Published On August 18th, 2024.  https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2020/aug/19/tokyo-bays-seaweed-forests-and-prized-abalone-that-live-in-them-disappear   Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler   Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

This article is a part of our second newsletter, The Persaud Catalogue Journal of Marine Biology. In this second newsletter, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This second newsletter is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however it is a separate entity.  In today’s article, we will catalog the various species of seagrass found in & around Odaiba Marine Park, Tokyo, Japan. On August 22nd, 2024, we sent 2 field agents to Odaiba Park, to research more about the natural marine flora. In this article, we shall delve into the density of the certain marine plants found along Odaiba Marine Park, the areas in which these species are found, & a detailed description of each species. Please note, this was done with the correct permits or permissions & with previous research, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits or permissions that may be necessary to do so. With that being said, let us delve into the intriguing marine plants of Odaiba Marine Park, Tokyo, Japan.    The Survey Please note, all of these specimens were taken on August 22nd, 2024 in the late afternoon.   Species 1: Sargassum Fusiforme (Hijiki) Our first species is Sargassum Fusiforme, commonly known in Japanese as Hijiki. Hijiki is a species of edible seaweed frequently found along the rocky coastlines of Northeast Asia, particularly in Japan & Korea. It is a staple of the Japanese Diet as it is known for being rich in calcium, & iron. It is said to assist with digestion, as it is high in fiber. Although it has been known to have many health benefits, tests have shown that Hijiki harvested in Japan often has a high level of arsenic, causing many health organizations to advise against its consumption. It is not recommended to harvest this species in the wild for consumption without proper knowledge or precautions. Our specimen for this species is approximately 6 inches long, & 1 inch wide. It was found along Central Odaiba Marine Park.  Hijiki does not grow very frequently near the coastline, & grows further out into the bay. It is a very distinctive kind of seaweed, known for its dark colour, long stipe, & long thin protrusions away from its main stem.   Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast   Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of The Bermuda Islands This article is the fourteenth article in our Ode To Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map, is an antique map of the Bermuda Islands. The Bermuda Islands are a small group of islands in the Northern Atlantic Ocean, governed by the United Kingdom. Bermuda is located approximately 1,051 miles off the coast of Florida. The total territory is approximately 20.6 square miles (53.35376 square kilometers). The chart that we are examining is in wonderful condition, with details being clear & precise, & the paper having very few blemishes. There are a few small yellowed spots near the bottom of the map, & a slight curling at the bottom of the chart, however it does not have any affect on the quality of the map itself. The chart is approximately 30 inches (76.2 centimeters) long, & 40.5 inches (102.87 centimeters) wide. In this article we will discuss the map itself, the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said let us delve into the isles of Bermuda.  The Chart Itself Due to the chart being in English, there is no need for any translation. The chart is centered on Bermuda, & its surrounding isles. The chart is uncoloured. The chart has the names of a few settlements on the isle, as well as the safe sea routes between the isles. This chart does label multiple oceanic depths, & oceanic points of interest.    An Analysis Of The Chart This chart was created in 1877 by the United States Hydrographic Office as a part of a survey. As it was made in collaboration with the Navy, it was likely used for Military Research. Additionally, the map has six compasses on it, 4 of which point to magnetic north. This would have been useful in guiding the viewer as to what true north & magnetic north were while sailing. The chart does not have any of the topographical features of Bermuda Outlined on it. It is extremely accurate & detailed, with almost all of the islands around Bermuda being labelled properly. This map was most certainly made via the lithographic process, due to its maker, & the time period that it was manufactured in. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho-press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit  mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors   Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The History Of Santa Rosa Island, California In today’s article we will be delving into the history of Santa Rosa Island, California. Santa Rosa Island is a relatively small island approximately 26 miles off the coast of Santa Barbara, South Central California. It is the second largest island in the Channel Islands Archipelago of California. The island is approximately 83.12 square miles (215.27981 square kilometers) in area.    Despite being so large, the island has a minuscule population of 2 people, making for an extremely low population density of 0.024061597690087 per square mile (0.009290234880828 per square kilometers). The island is well known for its beautiful hiking trails, rolling hills, deep canyons, & mesmerizing coastline. Many tidepools are located along its coastline, which are frequently explored by curious visitors.  The lagoons nearby the island are often used as whale nurseries, & dolphin nurseries for young dolphins. Overall, the oceans surrounding Santa Rosa Island are incredibly biodiverse, housing over 100 endangered animals, & serving as a breeding ground for many more.   Santa Rosa Island has a long & intriguing history, beginning at least 12,000 years ago. The Chumash Native Americans & their ancestors have inhabited the island for at least 12,000 years, as seen in the multiple village sites along the island’s coastline. The oldest fossilized human found in North America was found in one of the Archaeological Sites on the island, & became known as the Arlington Springs Man. The Arlington Springs Man is the fossilized remains of a man or a woman who lived on Santa Rosa Island approximately 13,000 years ago. During this time, Santa Rosa Island was 150 feet lower then it is now, due to glaciation. Santa Rosa Island was at this time connected by land bridges to the other Northern Channel Islands, forming an ancient landmass known as Santa Rosae. At its largest, the Ancient Santa Rosae was approximately 125 kilometers from east to west. When the Pleistocene ended & the glaciers melted, the sea level rapidly rose, submerging Santa Rosae, & creating the modern northern Channel Islands. In this article, we will be discussing the history of Santa Rosa Island, the Aboriginals of Santa Rosa Island, the most destructive man-caused & natural disasters to affect Santa Rosa Island, & the economy of Santa Rosa Island. With that being said, let us delve into this beautiful isle.    The Documented History Of Santa Rosa Island, California As A Part Of The Ancient Landmass of Santa Rosae Santa Rosa Island’s history begins as a part of an ancient landmass known as Santa Rosae. As mentioned in the Introduction, Santa Rosae was a large island off the coast of California that existed up until approximately 10,600 years ago. It was approximately 125 kilometers across from East to West, & largely forested until it began to become submerged. The island had a thriving marine & terrestrial environment, & even had a species of Pygmy Mammoth known as the Channel Islands Mammoth, which was approximately 17% smaller then their mainland counterparts. The Chumash Native Americans inhabited this large landmass, fishing off of its coast, & building small village settlements along it. The natives thrived on the island, & continued to thrive even after it began to become rapidly submerged underwater. At first, the Anacapa Islands split away, with Santa Cruz Island following after. Santa Rosa & San Miguel Island remained one landmass for 300 more years, until finally fragmenting into their modern form.    Before Colonization By The Spanish Historical Events From 11,000 B.C.  The first evidence of humans inhabiting Santa Rosa begins 13,000 years ago, with the Arlington Springs Man. The Arlington Springs Man are the fossilized human remains of a Chumash individual. It is the oldest human remains found in North America.   Historical Events From The 1500’s On an expedition to the isle in 1585, it was recorded that there were at least 3 villages along the coast. This was recorded by Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo. The Chumash Natives used this island as an area for fishing, & built these villages to sustain themselves. The fish & marine animals harvested around the island were often traded between the Island Chumash & the Mainland Chumash as a part of their extensive trade networks. The Chumash referred to the island as “Wi-ma”.  After Becoming A Part Of Mexico  Historical Events From the 1800’s By the early 1820’s, the remaining Chumash natives were removed or left to the mainland. The island would remain uninhabited for almost 20 years, until the island was given as a land grant to a group of ranchers. In 1838, the island was given to Jose Antonio & Carlos Barrelo Carillo, a set of prominent brothers from Santa Barbara, California. The ownership of the island was officially transferred to them in 1843, however they would sell the island only a month after. The Carillo Brothers sold the island to Carlos’s daughters & their husbands, Alpheus Thompson & John C. Jones.  After Becoming A Part Of California  Historical Events From The 1800’s Jones & Thompson were prominent otter huntsmen, who engaged in the trading of otter pelts along California’s coast. As a clause of Thompson & Jones’s ownership, they had to actively improve the island, & industrialize it. To fulfill this, in December of 1843 Thompson shipped materials to the island to build a house, which he would build in 1844. The house was located between Skunk Point & East Point, on an area known as Rancho Viejo. The men began to bring livestock over as well, with 270 cattle, 2 rams, 9 horses, & 51 ewes. Thompson finally moved onto the island, bringing his employees with him. Numerous trails were developed, & much more livestock was brought over from the mainland. Another house with an attached pen was built in 1855, near Becher’s Bay. This new house provided a much more stable area for agricultural use, & for importing as well as exporting goods. In 1859, T. Wallace More purchased Jones’s share in the island.  Unfortunately, the partnership between More & Thompson fell sour as a result of litigation, & combined with a drought on the island, resulted in the majority of the livestock being removed from the island by 1859. More & his brothers began systematically buying out Thompson’s share in the island, until they acquired the last shares in 1870. Due to an ongoing drought in California, herding cattle wasn’t exactly profitable, so the More Brothers turned to sheep instead. The brothers developed a large sheep ranch on the island, & acquired between 40,000 & 80,000 sheep to send to the island. They built large pens with redwood trees, & began planting crops as sheep feed. They abandoned the pens at East Point, & focused solely on the pens at Becher’s Bay.  By 1873, a wharf, multiple houses, & a 2-story barn were constructed at the Becher’s Bay Ranch Site. Unfortunately Tragedy soon struck, in the form of another extreme drought that lasted from 1876 to 1878. More had to slaughter 25,000 sheep, however he installed a boiler in one of the barns to render their corpses. At the end of the slaughters, there were between 15,000 & 20,000 sheep remaining on the isle.  In 1881, one of the More Brothers, A. P. More, purchased all the shares in the island. He managed to recover the sheep population to an astounding 80,000 head by 1883. The farming of the sheep was very efficient, with an experienced sheerer being able to sheer up to 100 fleeces each day. A.P More unfortunately passed away in 1893, & the ensuing litigation led to More’s heirs selling shares to Vail & Vickers Co.  Historical Events From The 1900’s By 1902, Vail & Vickers Co. owned the entire island. Walter J. Vail & J. V. Vickers were prominent cattlemen from Arizona, who at the beginning of the 20th century purchased Santa Rosa Island. They decided to advance their operations in Southern California, & thought the island would be an ideal place to continue.  After purchasing the entire island, they built a small schoolhouse for the employees’ children, & repaired all pens, & old structures. Beginning in the 1910’s, Vail would import deer & elk for sport hunting. Due to the start of World War 2, the Vaquero, the primary boat used to transfer cattle between the island & the mainland, was confiscated for military use. A second boat, the Vaquero 2, was soon commissioned, & continued to be used until operations ceased. The brothers would farm cattle on the island until 1998, when the last of their cattle was transferred off the island. Depending on the season & conditions, the island would have between 3,000 & 7,000 cattle at any given time until the operations ended.  After the last of the cattle were transferred out, Vail & Vickers purchased a 25-year reservation for a tract of 7 acres near Becher’s Bay. This reservation expired in 2011, when the ownership of the island was officially transferred over to the National Park Service. Modernly, the island is the site of eco-tourism, & many serene campgrounds.  The Aboriginals Of Santa Rosa Island, California The Chumash Indigenous Peoples  The Chumash are a group of Native Americans who historically inhabited the areas from Malibu all the way to Paso Robles & Morro Bay. They also inhabited 3 of the channel islands, those being Santa Rosa Island, Santa Cruz Island, & Santa Miguel Island. They were most concentrated in the Santa Barbara Channel region. At their peak, their population reached approximately 25,000.  They spoke the Chumashan languages, of which there are 3 predominant ones. There are North Chumash, Central Chumash, & Island Chumash. The Island Chumash was primarily spoken by those on Santa Rosa Island, Santa Cruz Island, & Santa Miguel Island. These languages, are unfortunately classified as extinct & have been since the early 1960’s.    Their diets primarily consisted of seafood such as the black abalone, pacific littleneck clam, bent-nosed clam, Olympia oysters, angular unicorn snails, butternut clam & red abalone. Individuals would catch these animals by spear fishing, or by using nets. For catching certain species, a primitive kind of fishing rod was popular. Historically acorns were found commonly in their diets. in the form of being ground up & cooked in a soup. They would also feast on the fruits of the laurel sumac tree.  They had very adept maritime technologies, in the form of dug-out canoes, which no doubt helped them in their expansion to the various Channel Islands. In addition to increasing their land, it also helped them make trade with other villages & populations of natives. At their peak, they had approximately 150 independent villages, the largest being located in Santa Barbara. The smaller villages tended to be located in areas that did not have immediate access to a spring, lake, or ocean. Each village had access to the majority of the resources southwest California has to offer, because they all traded with each other.  In addition to being inventive with their hunting techniques, they were also extremely successful at basket weaving. They would weave baskets for various purposes such as holding food, or using them to catch animals. To ornately decorate the baskets, they would occasionally add clay beads. These clay beads could also be used for jewelry or other decorative items. They are not on record to have attacked any other neighbouring natives.  In Chumash villages each family had their own house, & each village would have a sweat-house. A sweat-house is a house is a place for cleansing. Each individual village would have something similar to a playground for the children. This playground would have a flat outdoor area  used to play games such as Payas, Peon, & Shinny. There would also be other areas in the village used for dancing, as dance was very important in Chumash culture.  Their ceremonial dance grounds would have a high fence of tule mats, as tule mats serve as a nice windbreak. Inside of the sacred dance ground, was a semi-circular area in which shamans & priests would perform religious rituals. Little is known about their religion, however they were most certainly polytheistic. They were also skilled at medicine, & using the local herbs & plants to produce medical treatments.  The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect Santa Rosa Island, California There are not many disasters recorded to have affected Santa Rosa Island negatively enough to be reported on.  The Economic State Of Santa Rosa Island Santa Rosa Island does not have much of an economy on its own, as it doesn’t have very much to offer outside of eco-tourism. The entire island only has 2 year round residents, & almost businesses outside of the few campgrounds. The island sees approximately 20,000 visitors each year, the majority of which are domestic tourists. Overall, Santa Rosa Island does not have a very large economic impact on California, or much of its own economy.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “California’s Atlantis: The Lost Superisland of Santa Rosae”, Written By Nathan Masters, & Published on August 7th, 2018. Published by the Public Broadcasting Service of Southern California. Retrieval Date: July 10th, 2024. https://www.pbssocal.org/shows/lost-la/californias-atlantis-the-lost-superisland-of-santarosae Citation No. 2: “Santarosae”, Written by Jon Erlandson, & Published on February 5th, 2023. Published by Islapedia. Retrieval Date: July 10th, 2024. https://www.islapedia.com/index.php?title=Santarosae Citation No. 3: “Arlington Man”, Written by Dr. John R. Johnson, & Published on June 7th, 2016. Published by the National Park Service. Retrieval Date: July 10th, 2024. https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/historyculture/arlington.htm Citation No. 4: “Santa Rosa Island History & Culture”, Written by Unknown, & Published on April 9th, 2024. Published by the National Park Service. Retrieval Date: July 10th, 2024. https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/historyculture/santarosaisland.htm Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Marine Biological Hall Of Distinction: Doctor Austin Gallagher  This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th.  Today’s marine biologist is the esteemed Doctor Austin Gallagher. Austin Gallagher is an accomplished marine biologist, biologist, & ecologist. He is well known for his work relating to Shark Tracking In Japan, & his description of the largest seagrass bed on Earth. Doctor Gallagher has been featured on the Forbes 30 Under 30 List in the Science Category, & has been honored as a Fulbright Scholar. In addition to these, he has started a new NGO called Beneath The Waves, which aims at tackling issues such as Ocean Health, Shark Conservation, & having more Marine Protected Areas. Over the course of his career, he has led approximately 50 Scientific Expeditions, & published at least 125 scientific articles. In this article, we will discuss the Formative Years & Education Of Doctor Austin Gallagher, The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Austin Gallagher, & the Awards, Accomplishments, Honorables, & Achievements of Doctor Austin Gallagher. With that being said, let us delve into the life of this highly admired shark scientist. The Formative Years & Education Of Doctor Austin Gallagher Doctor Austin Gallagher was born in 1987, in Boston, Massachusetts. As a child, he had a strong interest in Sharks, & Marine Biology as a whole. He was raised in New England, near the coast, which may have helped spark his interest. To prepare him for higher education, Gallagher attended Thayer Academy, & graduated in 2004. Soon after graduating, he was accepted to Loyola University of Maryland. He graduated with his bachelor’s degree in Biology, & a minor in Journalism in 2008. From the years 2008 to 2009, he obtained his Master’s Degree in Marine Science from Northeastern University, as a part of their Three Seas Program. Gallagher worked on his doctoral degree from 2010 to 2015 at the University of Miami, where he studied Shark Behaviours & Psychology.  The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Austin Gallagher Gallagher’s Career began in 2010 when he started his organization Beneath the Waves. Over the years, he gradually began shaping it into a place where citizen scientists, scientists, filmmakers, academics, & artists alike could collaborate on Oceanic & Shark conservation. He officially incorporated the organization as a nonprofit in 2014, in the United States.  Beginning in 2015, he worked on a post-doctoral fellowship with Carleton University of Canada, under the supervision of Doctor Steven Cooke. While working on this fellowship, he led an initiative to track shark & fishing boats, in conjunction with companies such as Google & Oceana. He officially finished this fellowship in 2017, & promptly began working on another project. Soon after, he helped lead a scientific team to sink a decommissioned ship in the British Virgin Islands, to create an artificial reef. This project was named BVI Art Reef, & was successfully completed. Gallagher has done much research in the Bahamas, one of the first examples of which was in 2018. In 2018, he began a project proving the long-term benefits for Sharks in Marine Protected Zones, research which proves the importance of Marine Protected Zones. He also worked on a project proving the high concentration of harmful metals in Sharks from the region, described the genome of the Caribbean Reef Shark, & was the first scientist to utilize 360° cameras to track or monitor marine animals.  In 2018, Gallagher began working full-time as the Lead Scientist with Beneath The Waves.  From 2019 to 2020, Gallagher worked on many different studies in the Caribbean Sea, & the Southern Atlantic Ocean. This research resulted in the discovery of a new species of Bonnethead Shark, & never-before-seen video footage of the Sharpnose Sevengill Shark in the deep sea. In the same year, he tracked sawfish in Biscanye Bay, a species never found on record before. Using various techniques, Gallagher did the first global assessment of Shark Fishing Vessels.  In 2021, he stepped into the role of Chief Executive Officer at Beneath The Waves, where he has remained. In the same year, he was also awarded the Diving Hero Award From The Scuba Diving Magazine. Modernly, Gallagher frequently appears as a wildlife presenter with Discovery & Shark Week, & occasionally appears with National Geographic.  The Awards, Accomplishments, Honorables, & Achievements Of  Doctor Austin Gallagher He won the Blue Marine Science Foundation’s Science Award in 2023. He won the Sea Hero Award from Scuba Diving Magazine in 2021.  He has led over 50 scientific expeditions. He led the first expedition to study deep sea fish off the coast of the Turks & Caicos Islands.  He has published over 100 Scientific Articles.  He is a Fulbright Distinguished Scholar. He was honoured as one of the people on the Forbes 30 Under 30 List in 2016 at the age of 29.  As of 2024, he serves on the Advisory Boards for Hidden Worlds Entertainment, & Colossal.  He was the founder & chief editor of Discoveries, a column in the Frontiers in Marine Science scientific journal.  He founded the nonprofit organization “Beneath The Waves”, dedicated to oceanic & shark conservation.  He is the co-founder & owner of a CBD-infused tea company, known as Tempo Beverages.  He led a Shark Tracking Initiative known as the Global Fishing Watch, in partnership with companies such as Google.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Dr. Austin Gallagher”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Austin Gallagher. Retrieval Date: July 12th, 2024. https://www.austingallagher.com/ Citation No. 2: “Biography”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Austin Gallagher. Retrieval Date: July 12th, 2024. https://www.austingallagher.com/bio/ Citation No. 3: “Austin Gallagher”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by National Geographic. Retrieval Date: July 12th, 2024. https://explorers.nationalgeographic.org/directory/austin-gallagher Citation No. 4: “Project Leader: Austin Gallagher”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Save Our Seas. Retrieval Date: July 12th, 2024. https://saveourseas.com/project-leader/austin-gallagher/ Citation No. 5: “From Tiger Sharks to Tea”, Written by Rita Buettner, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Loyola University Maryland. Retrieval Date: July 13th, 2024. https://www.loyola.edu/explore/magazine/stories/2017/from-tiger-sharks-to-tea.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons

The Oceans Surrounding Santa Rosa Island, California In today’s article, we will be delving into the Oceans Surrounding Santa Rosa Island. Santa Rosa Island is a relatively small island approximately 26 miles off the coast of Santa Barbara, South Central California. It is the second largest island in the Channel Islands Archipelago of California. The island is approximately 83.12 square miles (215.27981 square kilometers) in area.  Despite being so large, the island has a minuscule population of 2 people, making for an extremely low population density of 0.024061597690087 square miles (0.009290234880828 square kilometers). The island is well known for its beautiful hiking trails, rolling hills, deep canyons, & mesmerizing coastline. Many tidepools are located along its coastline, which are frequently explored by curious visitors. The lagoons near the island are often used as whale nurseries, & dolphin nurseries for young dolphins. Overall, the oceans surrounding Santa Rosa Island are incredibly biodiverse, housing over 100 endangered animals, & serving as a breeding ground for many more.  In addition to the dolphins who frequent the area, Sharks are also fairly common. Both adult & juvenile great white sharks can be seen off the coast of the island, frolicking around in the waters & hunting for food.  The island is also diverse in its terrestrial ecosystems, being home to many endangered plant & animal species. Torrey’s Pine, a critically endangered species of Pine Tree is known to grow on the island. This species of tree is theorized to have approximately 1,000 individual trees growing on the island. Apart from this species of tree, there are approximately 6 plants that are endemic to the island, meaning that they are not found in any other place on Earth.  In this article, we are going to discuss the salinity, tides, temperatures, marine geography, & depth of the oceans surrounding Santa Rosa Island, the most prominent marine environments of Santa Rosa Island, the marine flora & fauna of Santa Rosa Island, how ocean acidification & rising oceanic temperatures are affecting Santa Rosa Island. With that being said, let us delve into the gorgeous blue coves of Santa Rosa Island.  The salinity, tides, temperatures, marine geography, & depth of the oceans surrounding Santa Rosa Island  Unfortunately, the salinity of the oceans surrounding Santa Rosa Island has not been measured before, however, it can be assumed that it falls between the numbers of 32 parts per thousand, & 36 parts per thousand, as the seawater in this area of the Pacific Ocean generally falls between those figures. Salinity is measured in 1000-gram increments of water, & for every 1000 grams of water, a certain amount is salt. This measurement is called Parts Per Thousand, or Practical Salinity Units. There are not many known brine pools around Santa Rosa Island, nor are there many oceanic salt deposits.    The tidal charts for the areas around the isle can be found on a plethora of websites, a few of which are: https://www.tideschart.com , https://www.tide-forecast.com , https://www.usharbors.com , & https://www.tidetime.org . The tides in the area typically don’t reach over 6.94 feet (2.115312 meters) high, & don’t reach below -2.34 feet (-0.713232 meters). The oceanic temperature charts can be found on similar web pages, such as: https://www.tideschart.com , https://seatemperature.info , & https://www.surf-forecast.com . Using these charts, the average yearly oceanic temperature is approximately 59.841666666667 Fahrenheit (15.46759259259278 Celsius).  Using a wetsuit guide, swimmers should use a 7-millimeter thick full wet suit or an 8-millimeter semi-dry suit. Swimming is not a common activity around the island, as it is extremely cold & rip currents may present a danger to swimmers. For similar reasons kayaking as well as surfing is very difficult & somewhat dangerous around the island, & should only be done by those who are well experienced. The sea-caves around the island are prone to quickly filling with water at all hours of the day, & the weather as well as currents can be unpredictable.  Tourism is not very popular on the island, & is almost always done for the island’s oceanic or terrestrial ecosystems.  As the island is a part of a marine reserve, it is not very polluted. Littering is strictly forbidden around the island.  The deepest oceanic point within a 5-mile radius of Santa Rosa Island is toward the south of the island, & is approximately 1,589.9 feet (484.60152 meters) deep. Additionally, the seafloor is largely composed of compressed sand, gravel, shell, mud, & rock. There are no known large sea mounts around Santa Rosa Island, & there are no extreme oceanic drop-offs apart from near the shoreline.  Parts of the island are a part of what is known as the Channel Islands National Marine Reserve. This means that the island is highly biologically protected, & activities that damage or otherwise harm the environment are strictly prohibited & penalized accordingly.  The Most Prominent Marine Environments Of Santa Rosa Island  Ecosystem Type No. 1: Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows are large patches of seagrass that oxygenate the water & provide shelter for marine organisms. These meadows are incredibly important to the oceanic ecosystem, as they provide a food source, an oxygen source, & shelter simultaneously. These areas are commonly used by fish & mollusks alike to spawn their eggs, as the seagrass provides a safe area for their hatchlings. These seagrass meadows may be composed of 1 species of seagrass, or be composed of multiple species depending on their depth. Typically, these meadows can be found from 0.25 to 190 feet (0.0762 meters to 57.912 feet) deep.    Ecosystem Type No. 2: Intertidal Zones & Tide Pools An intertidal zone is an area of coastline that is exposed to air at low tide, & is covered with water at high tide. It is a very important location for many small marine animals, such as gastropods, crustaceans, & bivalves. Many animals will take advantage of the nutrients & microorganisms that come in with the high tide. Tide pools are a kind of rock formation located in the intertidal zone, in which water becomes trapped to form a small pool. These pools generally have species from the phyla Echinodermata & Mollusca in them. Ecosystem Type No. 3: Sea Caves Sea caves are a kind of rock formation that embellish the coastline of Santa Rosa Island. The sea caves around Santa Rosa Island are usually only partially filled with seawater, & instead of being completely submerged. For this reason, kayakers will occasionally attempt to go through these sea caves, despite the danger of the cave being suddenly submerged. Fauna in these caves can vary, however they are often home to eels, turtles, sponges, shrimp, bivalves, anemones, urchins, crabs, sea stars, barnacles, & fish.  The Marine Flora Of Santa Rosa Island  Santa Rosa Island is home to a variety of marine flora, such as eelgrass, giant kelp, & bullwhip kelp. Zostera marina (Eelgrass / Seawrack) is the most common species of seagrass that grows around Santa Rosa Island. This species is a true seagrass, meaning that it grows directly on the ocean floor.  It is extremely recognizable as it has bright green blades. They generally have long blades that average 1 meter (3.28084 feet) long. The blade is often between 0.5 (0.19685 inches) & 1 centimeter (0.393701 inches) thick. This species of seagrass is most often found on the coast as it grows along muddy & sandy shorelines. This seagrass is also most commonly found in marshes, which is likely why it is such a popular food among wading birds. Additionally, this seagrass is extremely important to preventing erosion, & to fish spawning. When they grow, they create dense patches that will shield the coastline from harsh currents, thus preventing the currents from affecting coastal buildings & shorelines.  The Marine Fauna Of Santa Rosa Island  Santa Rosa Island has a very diverse range of marine fauna. With animals ranging from northern elephant seals to orca’s, to brittle stars, Santa Rosa Island truly has a unique marine landscape. The island is home to many fish, such as the California sheephead, giant sea bass, lingcod, & large calico bass.  Due to the migratory nature of many of the island creatures, conducting a marine animal survey is very difficult to do accurately. For this reason, we cannot provide a comprehensive list or guide of the marine animals that inhabit the area around the island.  How Oceanic Acidification & Rising Oceanic Temperatures Are Affecting Santa Rosa Island  Ocean acidification is a phenomenon in which the pH level in the ocean decreases, causing a higher level of acidity. Oceanic Acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, & deforestation, for the past 150 years.  When carbon dioxide contacts sea water, it forms carbonic acid.  Carbonic acid gives off positive H+ ions, which causes increased oceanic H+ concentrations & decreased oceanic Ph. When the ocean has decreased Ph, it creates a more acidic environment, which is extremely hostile to many marine species. These conditions will eat at the shells of bivalves, stress out & eventually bleach coral, & utterly destroy seagrass patches. Although it is not clear if Ocean Acidification is currently affecting Santa Rosa Island, this phenomenon paints a very grim & uninviting future for all marine life.    Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Wetsuit thickness & temperature guide”, Written By Mark Evans, & Published On April 24th, 2023, at 3:05 PM. Published By Scuba Divers Magazine. Retrieval Date: July 1st, 2024. https://www.scubadivermag.com/wetsuit-thickness-and-temperature-guide/#Scuba_diving_wetsuits   Citation No. 2: “South Point Marine Reserve/Federal Reserve”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the California Department of Fish & Wildlife. Retrieval Date: July 1st, 2024. https://wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Marine/MPAs/South-Point/lc/579187/lcv/s/South%20Point%20Santa%20Rosa%20Island   Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler   Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: A Chart Of The Bay Of Bengal This is the thirteenth article in our Ode to Oceanography Series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map, is an antique map of the Bay of Bengal. The Bay of Bengal is a part of the Indian Ocean, that is located between India, & the Indochinese peninsula. The Bay Of Bengal Region is approximately 838,600 square miles (2,171,964.03 square kilometers). The chart itself is in fair condition, but it does have some moisture damage on the corners. Additionally, it has some a large crease in the center, & a small crease towards the side of the map. The map is approximately 39.5 inches long, & 50 inches wide. In this article we will discuss the map itself, the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said let us delve into the Bay of Bengal.  The Chart Itself Since this map was made & designed in English, there is no need for translation. The map is very detailed & uncoloured, with no writing smudged. The map is centered on the Bay of Bengal.  The map has the various names of settlements that are in the Bay of Bengal, as well as all the island chains that are in the Bay. This map is very accurate, & very few islands are left off of it. The map does not have any oceanic depths, or oceanic features labelled.  An Analysis Of The Chart  This map was Published in 1873, by Scottish Hydrographers, James Imray &  James Frederick Imray. James Imray was the father of James Frederick Imray. The map was made & published in London. This map was made available for purchase by Maps of Antiquity. It is unclear whether or not the map is a part of any particular collection. This map was made privately, & was not used for military purposes. Considering the time & the person that this was made by, the map was most certainly made by Lithography. There are extremely few other methods that it would have been made with, & lithography was the cheapest & fastest way to produce maps at the time. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them.  Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Mauritius  Todays article will discuss the history of the island known as Mauritius. Mauritius is an island nation that exists in the Indian Ocean. It is off the eastern coast of Africa, & it is semi-close to the eastern areas of Madagascar. It is known for its beautiful beaches & active marine life. The main reason for this marine life, is their well kept coral reefs & sea grass meadows. It is a sovereign nation & the people primarily speak French. The French name for Mauritius is Maurice. It is tropical & is one of the most visited countries of all the African nations. It is approximately 1,017.47 Nautical / Marine miles off the coast of Africa. It is also approximately 2724.90 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of Antarctica. Additionally, the isle is approximately 2088.98 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of the continent known as Asia, specifically the country seagrass of India. The island is home to approximately 1,262,523 people. It has many thriving marine ecosystems which include coral reefs. The Mauritian government & the Mauritian people will take care of these coral reefs. This can be seen in many beach clean ups being conducted. This in attracts many marine animals. These species range from tropical fish, to dolphins, to even certain species of shark. Mauritius is a tropical country & their waters are warm & always at a comfortable temperature. There are very many recreational activities that take place around the island. These activities range from boating, to personal fishing, to swimming, to snorkelling. The oceans of Mauritius are most definitely one of their largest assets in term of the economy. Mauritius is also a very common place for eco-tourism due to their dense rainforest. Mauritius has a long & complex history with it changing hands approximately 4 times, including being a part of the large French & British empire. It also played a role in the development of the dutch east India company. Mauritius has also had many uses over the years depending on the empire that it was being used by, these uses will be further discussed in the historical section of my article. The island has an approximate population of 1,265,475, this number was found by a census in the year 2019. The island has an approximate land area of 2046.09 square kilometers (789.9997656 square miles). In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of the island known as Mauritius, The known aboriginals of Mauritius, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters that have affected Mauritius, & finally a segment on the economy of Mauritius. With that being said, let us delve into the island of gorgeous island of Mauritius.  The Documented History Of Mauritius  Before Colonization  The island was uninhabited & unknown before it was discovered. It may have been visited by Arab sailors in the middle ages, however that is not documented. The island does not have any original people & was completely untouched when first discovered by the Moors. There were no original people for this area, as it was completely disconnected from the main continent of Africa’s culture.  After Colonization  16th Century  The moors were the first to discover the island. It is unknown exactly when they found out about it, however it was first discovered on a map made by the Italian cartographer known as Alberto Cantino. This map was made in 1502 so it is safe to assume that the island was known about since 1502. In the map, Cantino depicts three isles which are thought to represent the Mascarenes (Réunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues) & refers to them as them Dina Margabin, Dina Arobi, & Dina Moraze. The medieval Arab world also called the Oceanic region of the Indian ocean, Waqwaq. This goes for any island in that region, not just Mauritius. It is also unclear how far exactly waqwaq extended. After this the Portuguese sailor Domingo Fernandez Pereira visited the island in the year 1511. He was most likely the first Western European sailor to land on the island. He was there for a very brief time period. After this point the island appeared on Portuguese maps with the name “Cirne”. It is sort of unclear what this translates into. Upon arrival, he found the dodo bird, which was a flightless bird in abundance on the island at the time. After this, another Portuguese sailor known as Don Pedro Mascarenhas may have visited the islands. After this point the portugese abandoned the islands as they took no interest in colonizing the island. In the year 1598, a Dutch colony landed on the island. This colony was ordered by Admiral Wybrand Van Warwyck, once the colonists landed they named the island “Mauritius” in order to honour Prince Maurice Van Nassau of Holland. They did not immediately settle the island.    17th Century In the year 1638, an attempt was made to finally settle the island of Mauritius. This attempt was made by the Dutch. It was from this point that the famous Dutch sailor & navigator, Tasman, set out to explore the western areas of Australia. The very first Dutch settlement ended in failure, as it only lasted 20 years. Quickly after, several attempts were made to build another colonization, but unfortunately the settlements were never able to develop enough to produce dividends. This ended in the Dutch finally deciding to abandon all hope, & then leave Mauritius. They did so in 1710. They introduced sugar cane, & deer to the island via imports from mainland Africa.  18th Century After being abandoned by the Dutch, the island became a French colony. It became like this when in September in the year of 1715, Guillaume Dufresne D'Arsel landed & took possession of this precious port of call on the route to India. This made it a sort of way station for ships going to India. D’Arsel named the island “Isle-de-france”. The french much like the Dutch, did not settle immediately. It took until the year 1721 in order for France to finally settle the island. The island was not developed much until 1735 either. It began due to the arrival of a certain french governor known as Mahé de La Bourdonnais, who established Port Louis as a ship-building center & a naval center. Port Louis is still surviving, & is in fact the modern capital of the island. Several buildings built under bis guise also managed to survive to modern day. The island was also under the administration of the French east India company at this time, the company remained on the island until 1767. From 1767 to 1810, the island was governed by french officials, these officials led the island. This was continuous except for a brief period of time during the French Revolution. During this period of time, the colonists on the isle set up their own government system, which was designed to be almost independent of France. At this point the island became somewhat of a constituent country. Amidst the Napoleonic wars, the “isle de France”, had become a base in which the french corsairs orchestrated successful raids & attacks upon the incoming British commercial ships. These raids would continue until the year 1810 when a group of British expeditors captured the island, this started the British colonialism period for Mauritius. 19th Century A preliminary attack was launched on grand port however it failed, the attack was launched in August of 1810. This made way for the much larger attack in December of that same year, which would ultimately capture Mauritius. The British landed on the northern side of the island & quickly overpowered the French forces. The island was formally declared as captured on the 3rd of December, 1810.  By the treaty of Paris in the year 1814 the islands name was changed from “Isle de France” to its former name “Mauritius”. The island was formally ceded to the British around this time as well. In the event of capitulation, the British assured the residents that they would respect the language, customs, traditions, & laws that were already in place. In the act of capitulation, the British guaranteed that they would respect the language, the customs, the laws and the traditions of the inhabitants. British administration was promptly established, the first significant sign of British development was adding the first governor of Mauritius, who was Robert Farquhar. Rapid social & economic changes soon followed his arrival. One of these economic & social changes, was the abolition of slavery on the 1st of February, 1835. This caused a decrease of crop development. Due to this, the planters received compensation of 2 million pound sterlings for the loss of these slaves. The loss of these slaves would cause many plantations to fall into a economic depression. These slaves were mainly imported from mainland Africa & Madagascar during the french occupation. The planters needed labourers to work the fields, so they attempted to recruit Malay, African, & Chinese indentured servants. The planters would ultimately turn to India, from which they would bring a large amount of indentured workers to work the sugar cane fields. These new Indian immigrants, would change the society in many ways both social & economic. They would later be joined by a few Chinese merchants. One of the economic changes that the Indians brought, was that they caused the cultivation of sugar cane to sky rocket on the island. This caused the island to flourish as they not only had an abundance of sugar cane for themselves, but they could import the sugar cane to England. Sir George Ferguson Bowen was the British governor of the island 1879 to 1883.  20th Century  During the 1920s, many conflicts arose between the Indians & the Franco-Mauritians. This led to many fights, which caused many Indians to die. Following close after this, the Labour party, a political party of Mauritius was founded. It was founded in 1936 by Maurice Curé, it was founded to protect & safeguard the interests of labourers. Curé was suceeded  one year later by Emmanual Anquetil, who was attempting to gain the support of port workers. After Anquetils death, Guy Rozemont assumed the leadership duties of the party. The Mauritius territorial force was a military force that was comprised of coastal artillery units & infantry formations, was created in 1934. Due to the escalation of world war 2 as well as the British involvement in world war 2, it was expanded to be 2 battalions. It was later renamed the “Mauritius Regiment” in the year 1943. During the second world war, Mauritians volunteered to help the war effort by either being construction workers, infantry soldiers, or military labourers. Any of them served in the royal pioneer corps in the middle east & in southern Europe. Many Franco-Mauritians were killed while serving as agents of the special operations executive. In December of 1943, 1000 soldiers of the Mauritius regiment were mutinied on the east African island of Madagascar. They did this because they felt betrayed & disrespected as they were told they would only be serving in Mauritius. An independence movement in Mauritius gained momentum in the year 1961, this started when the British agreed to permit self governance to the colony. Between 1965 & 1968 many ethnic riots happened which could only be brought to control with assistance of British troops. This strife led to approximately 300 fatalities. The British rule formally ended on the 12th of March 1968 when the Mauritius independence act was passed. In December of 1991, the constitution of Mauritius was amended to make mauritius a republic within the commonwealth. Mauritius became a republic on the 12th of february of 1992, with the last governor general Sir Veerasamy Ringadoo as interim president.  The Aboriginals Of Mauritius  Unfortunately, there were no aboriginals of Mauritius. Mauritius was uninhabited for as long as we can tell. Arab sailors may have visited the island during the middle ages, but this is not proven.  The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect Mauritius  No. 1: The Wakashio Environmental Disaster  The Wakashio environmental disaster was an oil spill. It took place on the 25th of July 2020. The Wakashio, one of the worlds largest bulk carriers, was going on a trip from China to Brazil. While passing through the Indian ocean, it struck a large coral reef. This caused massive damage to the ship. Unfortunately, the ship was 17% understaffed so the damages were not noticed for a few days. The ship had only 20 working crew members during the initial crash. With a ship the size of Wakashio, the crew should have been at least 24. A few days later, the ship began leaking oil. The ship slowly began breaking apart due to damages, & unfortunately it was breaking on a whale nursing ground. It began breaking just south of Mauritius. As the oil leaked out, Mauritian shorelines became drenched in approximately 1,000 tons of toxic fuel. This destroyed many shallow coral reefs, which caused fish to leave or die. This ended up destroying the livelihoods of thousands of fisherman & tourism workers. The sands became contaminated as well which caused many issues for the people who made a living along the beaches. The Wakashio oil disaster can be attributed to approximately 50 dead whale carcasses. The Mauritian government choose to not release much information, so it is unclear exactly what type of oil leaked out. There is also no disclosure as to the necropsies that were conducted on the dead cetaceans who were killed as a result of the event.  No.2: Cyclone Emnati  Cyclone Emnati was a tropical cyclone that lasted from the 15th of February 2022 through the 26th of February 2022. It was only 2 weeks after the major cyclone known as Cyclone Batsirai. It was classified as an intense tropical cyclone as well as a category 4 tropical cyclone. The highest winds that it had were at 130 miles per hour (209.215 kilometers per hour). Ir ran through the islands of Mauritius, Reunion, & Madagascar. It cost approximately 1 million U.S.D. in damages, adjusted for inflation that would be approximately 1,022,261.71 in todays exchange.  The Economic State Of Mauritius The economic state of Mauritius is stable. Mauritius currently has a 11.263 billion U.S.D. They rank 150th in economy. Their GDP by sector is 4% agriculture, 21.8% industry, & 74.1% services. Their inflation rate was 4.1% in 2020. Their main industries are currently food processing, textiles, clothing, mining, chemicals, metal products, transport equipment, nonelectrical machinery, & tourism. Their current public debt is 64% of their GDP which is 716,819,2384. Historically, they have relied heavily on sugar production, as a way to combat this, in the 1980s the government of Mauritius sought to diversify their economy. This endeavour has worked out quite well for them. Mauritius current currency is the Mauritian rupee. 1 U.S.D equates to 46.05 Mauritian rupees. Mauritius does have a stock market. It is called the Stock Exchange Of Mauritius. It has approximately 200+ securities.  Directories / Credits  http://www.govmu.org/English/ExploreMauritius/Pages/History.asp https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/opinions/2021/8/4/remembering-the-mauritius-worst-environmental-disaster https://safety4sea.com/cm-mv-wakashio-oil-spill-a-timeline-of-events-in-an-environmental-disaster/ https://www.forbes.com/sites/nishandegnarain/2020/10/11/wakashios-skeleton-crew-mauritius-oil-spill-ship-was-17-understaffed/?sh=572f6088618f Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons  Ms. Ochoa

Marine Biological Hall Of Distinction: Doctor Ruth Dixon Turner  This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Ruth Dixon Turner. Ruth Dixon Turner is a famous American Malacologist & Marine Biologist, renowned for her research on Shipworms, a marine kind of pest. Shipworms are a specific kind of worm, which enjoy burrowing into any wood submerged in seawater, causing severe damage to marine fixtures & boats. Contrary to the name, they are not worms, & are clams with long bodies that extend outside of their shells. Throughout her career, Ruth Dixon Turner dedicated herself to studying these destructive animals, leading her to become the World’s foremost expert on Shipworms. In her several decade-long career, she described at least 2 new species of mollusks. In this article, we are going to discuss the Formative Years & Education of Ruth Dixon Turner, the Career of Ruth Dixon Turner, The Accomplishments, Achievements, Honourables, & Awards Of Ruth Dixon Turner, & finally The Publications Of Ruth Dixon Turner.  With that being said, let us delve into the life of one of the world’s leading Marine Scientists. The Formative Years & Education Of Doctor Ruth Dixon Turner  Ruth Dixon Turner was born in Melrose, Massachusetts, on December 7th, 1914. Extremely little is known about her childhood, or education before university. She attended university at Bridgewater State College, located in Massachusetts, & Graduated with a Bachelor of Science in 1936.  The Career Of Ruth Dixon Turner Ruth Dixon Turner began her career as a Schoolteacher in Vermont, & Massachusetts. This was until she was offered the position of Assistant Director of Education for the New England Museum Of Natural History, which she gladly accepted. Although she is well known for her marine biological feats, she began her Scientific career in Ornithology, & harbored an interest in Ornithology until her death. As a result of her love, adoration, & respect for birds, she left her position as Assistant Director & was appointed promptly as Assistant Curator of Birds. She soon left his position, moving on to Vassar College as an Instructor in Biology. Alongside her work at Vassar College, she completed her Masters Degree in the Sciences from Cornell University. Her love for Ornithology soon led her to the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, where she volunteered in the Department Of Ornithology. It was here where she met William J. Clench, Assistant Curator of Molluscs at the time. Clench introduced her to Dr. William Clapp, a famous scientist studying marine wood-eating worms. She began establishing an interest in Molluscs, & was introduced to the field of Malacology. She left the Museum in 1944 to work at the William F. Clapp Laboratories in Duxbury, Massachusetts, however, she would return to the museum 2 years later to continue working with Clench. One of her first official research projects was conducted in 1949, in which she made a trip to Cuba to study Marine & Terrestrial Molluscs with Clench. Soon after in 1954, she would receive her P.h.D from Radcliffe College at Harvard University, officially making her a doctor. Her dissertation was on the family Terenidae, more commonly known as shipworms, & is still considered a standard work to this day. From 1956 onwards to 1975 she worked as a lecturer of Biology at Harvard University, conducting research & publishing papers often. In 1976, she officially became a professor of Biology, & the Curator of Molluscs for the Museum of Comparative Zoology where she had spent some of her younger years. In addition to these, she joined the scientific journal “Johnsonia” as a co-editor. She received 2 honorary Doctorate of Science degrees from both the New England College, & Plymouth State College Of The University Of New Hampshire. Her work earned her the respect & ability to appoint meetings for the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, the Academy of Natural Sciences, The Gray Museum, Leigh University, The University of New South Wales in Australia, & the University of Puerto Rico. In the same year, For all of her astounding research, she was officially named “Diver of the Year” by the Boston Sea Rovers, a local Educational society for which she was a proud supporter & member. She went on to serve terms as President of the American Malacological Union, & Boston Malacological Club. On August 13th, 1971, Turner became the first woman to dive using the deep sea research vessel ALVIN. This sparked a passion for deep sea science, that would lead to her describing why there was such little wood left on the recently discovered Titanic Wreckage. Turner was one of the pioneers in the study of marine biodeterioration, & developed a close relationship with the Office of Naval Research as a result of it. Along with her research on Mollusc Ecology, she had the opportunity to conduct many research studies in very niche areas of the globe, from Pakistan to South America to The Soviet Union. It is by those who knew her that she treated each new scientist & colleague with a sense of warmth & friendliness, & had an astounding ability to communicate her science to people of all ages & backgrounds. Unfortunately, Doctor Ruth Dixon Turner passed away on the 30th of 2000, in Waltham, Massachusetts. Her love for science, & many publications will remain relevant in marine science for a very long time. Her contributions to marine biology were immense, & have not been forgotten or ignored.  The Accomplishments, Achievements, Honourables, & Awards Of Doctor Ruth Dixon Turner  She has over 100 Scientific Publications.  She has described 2 new species of Shipworms. She was awarded 2 separate Honorary Doctoral Degrees from Plymouth College at the University of New Hampshire, & New England College.  She was an Honorary Life Member Of the National Shellfisheries Association. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Women of the Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ)”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Harvard Digital Library. Retrieval Date: June 14th, 2024. https://guides.library.harvard.edu/fas/WomenInBio/Turner Citation No. 2: “Who Was Ruth Turner?”, Written by Bruno Costeleni, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Ernest Mayr Library Blog. Retrieval Date: June 14th, 2024. https://library.mcz.harvard.edu/blog/who-was-ruth-turner Citation No. 3: “In Memoriam: Ruth Dixon Turner, 1914 to 2000”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Journal of Shellfish Research. Retrieval Date: June 14th, 2024. https://shellfish.memberclicks.net/assets/docs/in%20memoriam%20ruth%20turner%20191.pdf Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors  SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding The Island Of Mauritius Today's article will discuss the oceans surrounding the island of Mauritius. Mauritius is an island nation that exists in the Indian Ocean. It is off the eastern coast of Africa, & it is semi-close to the eastern areas of Madagascar. It is known for its beautiful beaches & active marine life. The main reason for this marine life is their well-kept coral reefs & seagrass meadows. It is a sovereign nation & the people primarily speak French. The French name for Mauritius is Maurice. It is tropical & is one of the most visited countries of all the African nations. It is approximately 1,017.47 Nautical / Marine miles off the coast of Africa. It is also approximately 2724.90 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of Antarctica. Additionally, the isle is approximately 2088.98 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of the continent known as Asia, specifically the country of India. The island is home to approximately 1,262,523 people. It has many thriving marine ecosystems which include coral reefs. The Mauritian government & the Mauritian people will take care of these coral reefs. This can be seen in many beach clean-ups being conducted. This attracts many marine animals. These species range from tropical fish to dolphins, to even certain species of shark. Mauritius is a tropical country & their waters are warm & always at a comfortable temperature. There are very many recreational activities that take place around the island. These activities range from boating & term snorkeling to personal fishing, to swimming, to snorkelling. The oceans of Mauritius are most definitely one of their largest assets in term of the economy. Mauritius is also a very common place for eco-tourism due to its dense rainforest. This clash of land & oceanic ecosystems works out quite nicely as it leaves Mauritius with much to offer. There are not very many islands that are similar to Mauritius due to their unique marine features & unique geography. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of Mauritius, Mauritius. With that being said, let us delve into one of the prettiest islands in the Indian Ocean.  The Salinity, Temperatures, Tides, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of Mauritius The salinity of the island has not been measured & released to the public domain. Since the island is in the Indian Ocean, it has the second to last place in salinity levels. This means that the Indian Ocean is less salty than 2 of the other oceans but not one other. Salt deposits / Brine Pools may be less common around the island due to the salinity parts per thousand being rather low. However, the possibility of brine pools existing is not far-fetched. The Indian Ocean has a salinity of between 32 & 37 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no ongoing factors that would lead to the salinity level being altered. The oceanic temperatures for the island can be found on a plethora of web pages but the easiest to use are the following: Sea Temperature Infohttps:// seatemperature.info , seatemperature.nethttps:// seatemperature.net , SeaTemperatu.rehttps:// www.seatemperatu.re , & finally SeaTemperature.orghttps:// www.seatemperature.org . The water temperatures usually peak at the beginning of February & are at their lowest point at the beginning of August. There is not much of a presence of riptide or at least enough of a presence to pose a threat to any swimmers. Mauritius is perfectly safe for swimmers around the majority of the island. There might be some areas that are undesirable to swim in but other than that the island is safe to swim in. There are stonefish & other species that pose a natural hazard, so this should be taken into consideration when going swimming around the island. The tide around the island is relatively calm & usually never reaches over 2.3 meters (7.54593 feet) high. The deepest oceanic point within 5 nautical miles of the island is approximately 2097 feet (639.1656 meters) deep. Oceanic mounts are not seemingly very common close to the coastline. The ocean floor consists of mostly sand, rock, & coral in this particular region.  The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Mauritius No. 1 Coral Reef Coral reefs are one of the most important marine ecological features of Mauritius. It attracts many species, a lot of which are endangered. The coral reefs provide a habitat for many species, such as stonefish, not to mention they are living being of their own. Coral reefs are incredibly common around Mauritius, however, they are becoming increasingly vulnerable due to ocean acidification & other factors. The majority of these reefs are classified as fringing reefs. Fringing reefs are incredibly close to the shoreline, thus However there are some reef atolls, reef atolls are coral reefs in the shape of rings, or coral islands. There is an atoll archipelago group known as Saint Brandon which is off the coast of Mauritiusbeings and has approximately 22 reefs. There are approximately 138 species of coral that are found in Mauritian waters.  No. 2 Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows often embellish fringing coral reefs along the coast. There is no real demographic as to the exact density of certain species in certain areas, however, there are approximately 36 species of seagrasses that have been observed in Mauritian waters. These meadows are usually located close to the coastline, but they can be found very far out at sea. They are usually composed of a variety of seagrasses & are usually host a variety of things such as fish, fish eggs, hunting grounds, a fish nursery, & being a shelter for certain species.  No. 3 Mangrove Forests Mangrove forests are found in Mauritius. Mangrove forests are composed of saltwater of freshwater streams running through the forest, & causing a creek to form. This creek will then gain nutrients, & trees will grow into the creek, creating a labyrinth of roots. There are 2 main mangrove tree species found in Mauritius, they are known as Rhizophora mucronata (Loop-root mangrove) & Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (large-leafed orange mangrove). They are currently restricted to the east & northwestern coast.  Mauritius unfortunately currently has between 1.2 & 1.81 square kilometers (0.463323 to 0.698845 square miles) of designated mangrove forest. There is currently very little data as to what species inhabit these mangrove forests, this is an area that requires more research as if nothing is done to preserve the remaining mangrove forest, we may see it gone forever.  No. 4 Mangrove Coasts / Lagoons Mangrove coasts are a specific kind of mangrove forest in which the trees grow directly along the coastline. This type of mangrove forest is rare nowadays due to rising sea levels. They are also known as mangrove lagoons.  The Documented Marine Flora Of Mauritius  There is a very diverse range of species when it comes to marine flora in Mauritius. The first few groups of species that we will be discussing are seagrasses & algae. There are currently 36 species of seagrasses which are found around Mauritius. The number of which of these species are native to Mauritius is unknown. There are approximately 160 genera of sea algae that are found in Mauritian waters. These include but are not limited to, Enteromorpha, Ulva, Sargassum, Caulerpa, Padina & Halimeda. Moving onto mangrove tree species, as stated in the subsection above speaking about the mangrove forests of Mauritius, there are currently 2 species of mangrove tree that are observed on Mauritius. These species are known as Rhizophora mucronata (Loop-root mangrove) & Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (large-leafed orange mangrove). These mangrove species originated in Polynesia & West Africa. Other than that, there are no known endemic marine plant species in Mauritius.  The Documented Marine Fauna Of Mauritius  There are approximately 493 fish species & 175 gastropod species. Unfortunately, we cannot discuss all 668 marine species that are documented right here. We will only be discussing the most prominent species around Mauritius. Since Mauritius has very healthy coral reefs which are in abundance, many colorful creatures are attracted. Many clean ups & conservation efforts are also ongoing that helps maintain the biodiversity of the island. Not only that, but Mauritius does not allow personal fishing without a permit granted by the prime minister himself. This allows for the fish population to thrive without constantly being bombarded by fishermen. Now, the most prominent marine species of Mauritius are as follows: Reef Stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa), (bottlenose dolphins), black cheek moray eel, African clownfish, Sargocentron diadema (crown squirrelfish), Pterois antennata (Broadbarred firefish), Mugil cephalus (flathead mullet), Epinephelus fasciatus (blacktip grouper), Epinephelus merra (honeycomb grouper), Elagatis bipinnulata (rainbow runner), Sphyraena Barracuda (Great barracuda), Thunnus albacares (Yellowfish tuna), & finally Scarus Ghobban (green blotched parrotfish).  How The Marine Resources Of Mauritius Were Utilized & How That Affected The Environment  The most that the marine resources of Mauritius were used was when commercial fishing was done. Commercial fishing is practiced somewhat in Mauritius, however fishing for personal use isn’t. Due to commercial fishing, certain fish populations have been decreased by large percentages. Something similarhelp is that ocean acidification is affecting the coral horribly. Ocean acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, & deforestation, for the past 150 years.  When carbon dioxide contacts sea water, it forms carbonic acid.  Carbonic acid gives off positive H+ ions, which causes increased oceanic H+ concentrations & decreased oceanic Ph. It also causes increased oceanic temperature. Ocean acidification is slowly causing the coral to bleach at an alarming rate.  Directories / Credits https://www.tideschart.com/Mauritius/Plaines-Wilhems/Beau-Bassin--Rose-Hill/ https://www.nairobiconvention.org/mauritius-country-profile/biodiversity-mauritius-country-profile/ Mangroves of Mauritius - Yo Nature https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000382205 Fisheries legislation in Mauritius Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of Martinique, France This article is the twelfth article in the Ode To Oceanography. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map is an antique map of Martinique, which is an overseas French territory. The area depicted on the map is a road along Saint Pierre, which used to be one of the sparkling jewels of the island. Saint Pierre is located on the central western side of the island, along with this particular road. The map does have some yellowing along the coastal area of the map, & a strange yellow dot on the right-hand side of the map. The yellowing on the paper is due to the oxidation caused by the cellulose in the paper. The edges are a bit blunt, & 1 of them is slightly curled back, but that does not obscure any of the map. The map is 17 inches (43.18 centimeters) long, & 12.25 (31.115 centimeters) inches wide. In this article, we will discuss the map itself, the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface-level analysis of this antique nautical map. With that being said let us delve into the Caribbean Sea, of the prized Martinique. The Map Itself Since this map was made & designed in English, there is no need for translation. The map is very detailed & clear, with no writing smudged. The main thing on this map is the road & community along Saint Pierre. Additionally, the map is centered on this road. Interestingly, The map has the oceanic depths of the surrounding coast on it. uncolored, & does not seem to have any faded color. Many topographical features are outlined, such as the nearby mountains.  A Surface Level Analysis Of The Chart  This map was designed & printed in 1877, by the United States Hydrographic Office of the United States Navy. The original survey that was used to make the map, was done by the French, in 1825. This map was made for militaristic purposes, & most likely used for them. The map is extremely precise, accurate, detailed, & incredibly useful for sailors who were sailing into Saint Pierre. It is unclear if this map was a part of any particular collection. This map was most certainly made via the lithographic process, due to its maker, & the periodAfterward that it was manufactured in. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them.  Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Oostende, Belgium Todays article will discuss the History surrounding the eastern areas of Belgium, specifically the town of Oostende. Oostende is in the northern area of Belgium. It is touching the southern area of the North Sea. It is on mainland & is not an island. Oostende has one of magnificent beaches of Belgium attached to it, known as Ostend beach. For the historical part of this month’s series, the history of the town will be studied instead of the beach itself. Oostende is approximately 61.66 miles from (70.957061 miles or 114.19432 kilometers) from the island of Great Britain. The English version of the name, is Ostend. From now on in this article Oostende will be referred to Ostend. The name Oostende translates from German into English as “East End”. This is a bit confusing as Ostend & Ostend Beach are on the northeastern area of Belgium. The German speaking population of Belgium is in the western area, not the area where Ostend & Ostend Beach are. This leads many to wonder how the town was named. It is currently considered to be one of the most beautiful beaches in all of Belgium. It is also one of the most well known beaches in Belgium because of how beautiful it is & active marine life. It has a rich & powerful history. Ostend is located in the province of West Vlanders. It has an interesting military history, as well as cultural history. The city of Ostend has an approximate population of 71,557. This number was found on a census taken in Ostend on January 1st of 2022. They do have a city website, which is known as https://www.oostende.be/ . Unfortunately, it is in Dutch so the majority of the website will need to be translated into English. The town had an approximate land area of 40.95 square kilometers (15.810883 square miles). The highest elevation in the town is not written down. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of the town known as Ostend, The known aboriginals of Ostend, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Ostend, & finally a segment on the economy of Ostend. With that being said, let us delve into the most beautiful sea-side town in all of Belgium.  The Documented History Of Oostende, Belgium Before Colonization  The 13th Century  It is unknown when humans first came to this area. Ostend was first formed before 1265. It was originally formed on an island known as Testerep. It was on the far east end of this island, this may be a contributing factor as to why it was called “Oostende”. It was first formed as a small fishing village. The village moved up in status to a town in approximately the year 1265. This coincided with the town residents being on record to have decided to hold a market. They also decided to build a market hall. It comes as no surprise that the towns main industry was fishing at this time. The 14th Century   The north sea coastline had always been rather unstable due to the power of the water, which is why, In 1395 the inhabitants decided to build a new Ostend behind large dikes and further away from the unpredictable coastline. The seas main threat was large crashing waves which would destroy many things along the coastline. The original Ostend at this point was abandoned, & a new one was built on the area where it is now.  After Proper Formation & Dutch Colonization  The 17th Century  The Ostendian economy relied on fishing, meaning that it was vital to the township’s economic development to have proper placement on the northern sea coast. Ostend ended up building up in an area that would provide a place for a nice harbour, but their placement would also prove to be a source of issues. The town was frequently taken, ravaged, ransacked & destroyed by conquering armies, more specifically the Dutch. In the end, the Dutch rebels known as the Gueuzen, invaded & stole the town. The siege of Ostend took place from 1601 to 1604, of which it was said that "the Spanish assailed the unassailable & the Dutch defended the indefensible". In this battle, approximately 80,000 soldiers were killed & wounded, this makes it the single most bloody & destructive battle of the eighty years war. This horrific conflict set off a chain of events of which would later result in a truce being made. When this truce was breached, the town became a Dunkirker base. After this low point, Ostends harbour was turned into something with a small level of importance. It was strategically important in that it was one of the already well established harbour in this specific area of the north sea.  The 18th Century  In 1722 the Dutch, again closed off the entrance to the world's largest harbour at the time, of Antwerp, the Westerschelde. Therefore, Ostend rose in importance because the town provided an alternative exit strategy to the sea. This would also boost the economy as it would cause more people to have to pass through the town to reach the harbour. The Belgian Austriacum had also just become a part of the Austrian empire at this time. The then Austrian Emperor Charles the IV granted the town the trade monopoly with Africa & the Far-East. This would also dramatically boost the economy. The Oostendse Compagnie was now allowed to found colonies overseas. However, in 1727 the Oostendse Compagnie was forced to stop its activities because of Dutch &  British pressure. The Netherlands & The United Kingdom would not allow their competitors to trade on the same levels as them. They regarded the right to internationally trade as their privilege & their privilege only.  The 19th Century  On the 19th of September, 1826 an artillery magazine exploded in the local area. At least 20 people lost their lives in this incident & 200 of them were severely wounded. The affluent quarter of d'Hargras was levelled as a result & the majority of the buildings were absolutely destroyed. Disease followed the devastation leading to further unaccounted number of deaths. The harbour of Ostend continued to expand due to the harbour dock, as well as the traffic connections with the hinterland, were improved. In 1838, a railway connection to Brussels was constructed, it is unknown what cities government paid for this. In the year 1846, Ostend became a designated transit harbour point when a ferry carrying passengers sailed from Ostend Harbour to Dover. On October 1854 a meeting of American envoys led what is known as the Ostend Manifesto. Important for the public imagery of the town, was the attention that it began to receive from Belgian kings Leopold I & Leopold II. Both of these Monarchs were very fond of Ostend & often were documented spending their summer vacations in the glorious. Due to this, important monuments & villas were built to please the royal family, which included the Hippodrome Wellington horse racing track, as well as the Royal Galleries. The rest of aristocratic Belgian society followed & soon Ostend became known as "the queen of the Belgian sea-side resorts". In the year 1866, Ostend was the venue for meeting of exile Spanish liberals & republicans to lay the framework for their country.  The 20th Century  During world war 1, ostend was occupied by germanic forces & was often used as an access point to to the northern sea for submarines as well as ships. As a consequence of the heavy military presence, the harbour fell victim to 2 naval assaults by the Royal Navy of Britain. The village hosted majority if not all sailing events for the country from this point on. They also held all sailing activities for the 1920 summer olympics for Antwerp.  World war 2 invoked the second occupation of the town by Germany within a period of little more than twenty years; an occupation which it shared this time with most of northern Europe. Both conflicts brought significant destruction to Ostend. In addition, other opulent buildings which had survived the wars were later replaced with structures in the modernist artistic style. The Aboriginals Of Oostende, Belgium  It is unfortunately, completely unknown who occupied Belgium first. The aboriginals of this area have not been identified as of the time of publication.  The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect Oostende, Belgium No. 1: Artillery Explosion Of 1826  A large artillery magazine exploded on the night of the 19th of September, 1826. This caused 10 fatalities & approximately 200 injuries. The exact location of the artillery magazine when it exploded is unclear. The quarter of d’hargras was completely levelled & very few buildings escaped the carnage. This also caused water to be inaccessible, which caused or contributed to a large disease outbreak.  No. 2: The Siege Of Ostend  The siege of ostend lasted from the 5th of July, 1701 to the 20th of September, 1704, back when Belgium was known as the Spanish Netherlands. It was incredibly long & we cannot fit all events that happened in the war in this subsection, so we will be giving a brief overview of it. We will not be discussing the 80 years war itself. The 80 year’s war was caused by a dutch revolt against the Spanish. The dutch used Ostend as a major force against the Spanish as ostend could easily be supported due to its magnificent harbour. As one source states, “Ostend was fortified in the year of 1583 and by the end of the sixteenth century was the only possession of the Republic in Flanders. From this strategically important position, the Dutch could inflict much damage on the surrounding Spanish territory. Even more crucially, control of Ostend meant control of the coast. Therefore, in 1601, Albert decided to besiege the town, stating that he would spend eighteen years doing so if need be. The siege began on the 5th of July 1601 and became infamous for the heroism, bloodshed and sheer endurance of both sides. As Simoni says, 'among the many battles, sieges, naval encounters and all manner of other military engagements of the Eighty Years' War, none was, and perhaps is, more famous than the long drawn-out siege of Ostend in which the Spaniards assailed the unassailable and the Dutch defended the indefensible'.”. The battle of ostend ended up lasting approximately 3 years, 2 months, & 15 days. There were a total of 30,000 to 45,000 deaths on the dutch side & 60,000 to 70,000 deaths on the Spanish side. The ultimate outcome of the siege was that ostend fell, but the majority of the city was destroyed by this point so it ultimately worked in the Dutch favour. The entire reason that the Spanish wanted to capture the city was for its abundant resources & connection to the sea, so this effort became futile when the Spanish realized just exactly what happened to this city. Not only that, but what happened to the city due to the actions of their own. The Economic State Of Oostende, Belgium Ostend has a large tourist industry due to their winter festivals & their beautiful beach. There is unfortunately no released graph as to how much tourism contributes to the economy. Ostend also has a spectacular fish market, so commercial fishing is also quite common. They are also often the place for exports going out & imports coming in as they are the main harbour along the coast. They use the Euro in Ostend. Ostend also does not have a stock exchange that is specifically dedicated to ostend. There are unfortunately no public figures for the Ostendian economy that are accessible to the public.  Directories / Credits  The Explosion at Ostend, The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer , 30 September 1826 University of Glasgowhttps:// www.gla.ac.uk › mar2004Siege of Ostend Journal Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun, more commonly known as Carl Chun. He is most well known for his work on the Valdivia Expedition of 1898, & his discovery of the Vampire Squid, a deep sea cephalopod. He was a university professor of marine sciences & biology. Across his career as a marine biologist, he taught classes at 3 german universities, participated in at least one scientific expedition, discovered an entirely new group of cephalopod, & published multiple scientific papers. Although he is most well known for his work relating to cephalopods, he was incredibly influential on planktonic organisms as well. In this article, we shall discuss the Education & Formative Years Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun, The Career & Later Life Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun & the Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honorables Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun. With that being said, let us delve into the life of one of the most important malacologists of the 20th century.  The Education & Formative Life Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun  Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun was born on October 1st, 1856 in Höchst, Germany. He was born to Gustav Chun. His interest in Zoology, Biology, & Marine Biology were sparked at a young age from visiting the Seneckenberg museum, & listening to various lectures. Aside from this, very little is known about his Childhood. Impassioned about the subject of zoology, he would get his bachelor degree of Zoology from the University of Göttingen, & his P.h.D in Zoology from the University of Leipzig in 1874. The Career & Later Life Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun  Upon graduating from university in 1878, he became an assistant to German zoologist Rudolf Leuckhart. He would continue his work under Leuckhart until 1883. His interest in marine biology was further spurred by his work at the Naples Zoological Station, where he researched & studied comb jellyfish, which he would later publish a monograph on. Soon after, in 1883, he became a professor at the German University of Königsberg, where he would remain until 1891. Shortly after becoming a professor, he married Lily Vogt, the daughter of Karl Vogt. They would go on to have two children together, Annie, born in 1885, & Lily, born in 1887. During his time at the University of Königsberg in 1888, he described Seasonal Vertical Migration, a process in which animals will stay at lower depths in the ocean for several months, then migrate further up as temperatures change. In 1891, he decided to move to Breslau, where he would continue being a professor & lecturer. In 1898, he would move back to Leipzig, & continue his Professorial work. Inspired by the British Challenger expedition that lasted from 1872 to 1876, he desired to host a deep sea expedition of his own. One of the widely accepted theories at the time, the Abyssus Theory, stated that life could not exist below 300 fathoms. Chun heavily disagreed with this, & felt that marine life had to exist in abundance in the deep ocean. Emboldened to prove this theory wrong, he presented the idea to the society for German Natural Scientists & Doctors in 1897, who gladly gave him the funding necessary for such a study. The steam ship known as the SS Valdivia was commissioned for the project, & on August 1st of 1898, the ship set sail from Hamburg Germany. On this expedition, he would discover the Vampire Squid in the Southern Hemisphere. Additionally, he found many other interesting deep sea organisms, ranging from squid to fish. Many of these species were bioluminescent, a trait previously not well studied. A publication detailing all of the information about the voyage was collected in a 24 volume book, & published in 1940. Unfortunately in 1908, a trophy head of a deer fell onto him, injuring him. Although he made a full recovery from this injury, he would pass away soon after as a result of a Heart Condition. He passed away on April 1st, 1914. His contributions to marine biology will never be forgotten, & will forever be appreciated.  The Achievements, Accomplishments, Awards, & Honourables Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun He was awarded the Cothenius Medal  from the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina.  He disproved the Abyssus ocean theory. He discovered an entirely new subcategory of cephalopods & a new species of cephalopod named Vampyroteuthis Infernalis (Vampire Squid).  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Carl Chun - The Man With A Deep Insight”, Written by Greta Paulsdottir, & Published on February 24th, 2021. Published by the Polar Journal. Retrieval Date: May 15th, 2024.  https://polarjournal.ch/en/2021/02/24/carl-chun-the-man-with-a-deep-insight/ Citation No. 2: “The Valdivia Expedition, Carl Chun's diving into the deep sea”, Written by Unknown & Published on June 3rd, 2020. Published by Senses Atlas. Retrieval Date: May 15th, 2024.  https://www.sensesatlas.com/the-valdivia-expedition-carl-chuns-diving-into-the-deep-see/ Citation No. 3: “Pioneers of plankton research: Carl Chun (1852–1914)”, Written by John R. Dolan, & Published in December of 2023. Published by the Journal Of Plankton Research. Retrieval Date: May 15th, 2024.  https://academic.oup.com/plankt/article/45/6/777/7252282 Citation No. 4: “Chun, Karl Friedrich Gustav”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Hessen. Retrieval Date: May 15th, 2024.  https://www.lagis-hessen.de/pnd/116516828 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa