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Marine Hall Of Distinction: Doctor Malcolm Roy Clarke This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Malcolm Roy Clarke. Malcolm Roy Clarke is a British Malacologist, Marine Biologist, & Teuthologist. Born on October 24th, 1930, He began his career as a whale inspector for the British Navy. During this time he worked aboard ships in the Antarctic. He is most well known for his research on cephalopods, & sperm whales. He is known to have been one of the first scientists to extract squid beaks from whale carcasses, in order to study them. For the majority of the 1900s as well as part of the 2000s, he was considered to be the world's foremost expert on cephalopods, & their ecology. He is considered to be one of the founders of Cephalopod International. Dr. Clarke is regarded as one of the greatest cephalopod ecologists, recognized for his dedication & contributions. For all of his work across the fields of general marine biology, malacology, & teuthology, he was awarded a fellowship of the Royal Society. In this article, we will discuss the Early Life & Education of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke, The Career & Later Life Of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke, & The Awards, Honourables, Accomplishments, & Achievements of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke. With that being said, let us delve into this Arctic malacologist. The Early Life & Education Of Malcolm Roy Clarke Malcolm Roy Clarke was born on October 24th, 1930. He was born in Birmingham, located in the western midlands region of England. Unfortunately, absolutely nothing is known about his childhood or his parents. The Later Life & Career Of Malcolm Roy Clarke Malcolm Roy Clarke began his career as a Whale Inspector for the Royal British Navy. During his time as a Whale Inspector, he worked aboard ships in the Antarctic region. This sparked a keen interest in cetaceans, leading him to write his Ph.D. thesis on whale parasites. While working on his thesis, he realized how much information could be recovered from squid beaks if he extracted them from whales. He would go on to extract this information, & while doing so, he would innovate new sampling techniques, & different methods of testing. This would help other naturalists discover a trove of information concerning other animals. Across all available records, it is unclear which year he got his P.hd. It is also unclear whether this was before or after his marriage. In 1953, Dr. Clarke married his wife, Dorothy Clara Knight. They would go on to have a happy marriage, & have 4 children. After he finished his whale inspecting business, he decided to begin working at the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences. He worked at this institution from 1958 to 1972. In that year, he decided to switch to working at the Marine Biological Association Of The United Kingdom. Despite officially retiring in 1981, he would stay with the association until 1987. During his time at the association around 1978, he was awarded a doctorate of science.  Soon after in 1981, he was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society. He retired in the year 1981, & purchased a secondary residence in on Pico Island, Portugal. Even though he was retired, his interest in cephalopods did not wane in the slightest. He continued to study various species of squid, as well as examine specimens up close. Astonishingly, He & his wife would open a private sperm whale museum on the island in 2003. This museum is still open, & is thriving. Unfortunately, he passed away on May 10th, 2013, in his second residence on Pico Island. His dedication, & contributions to science will not be forgotten. The Awards, Achievements, Accomplishments, & Honorable Of Malcolm Roy Clarke He had a deep sea anglerfish officially named after him. The species of anglerfish is Oneirodes Clarkei. He authored over 150 scientific articles that were published across a wide array of journals. He was awarded the Fellowship of the Royal Society. He innovated multiple techniques for experimentation that would help other naturalists discover heaps of new information. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Dedication: Malcolm Clarke, his life & work”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Elsevier. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://cephalopod.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/clarke_obituary.pdf Citation No. 2: “Malcolm Roy Clarke. 24 October 1930 — 10 May 2013”, Written by Peter J. Herring, & Published on the 1st of December, 2014. Published By Royal Society Publishing. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.2014.0011 Citation No. 3: “The role of Malcolm Clarke (1930–2013) in the Azores as a scientist & educationist” ", Written By J.N Gomes-Pereira, R. Prieto, V. Neves, J. Xavier, C. Pham, J. Gonçalves, F. Porteiro, R. Santos, & H. Martins, & Published On July 8th, 2014. Published By the Cambridge University Press. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-marine-biological-association-of-the-united-kingdom/article/role-of-malcolm-clarke-19302013-in-the-azores-as-a-scientist-and-educationist/5FCB2DD90B11F4EA51D66861A646B79D Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Terre-De-Bas, Guadeloupe This month's article series will discuss... the French isle of Terre-de-Bas. Terre de bas translates from French into English into the words bottomland, lowland, or downland. This is most likely due to the shallow elevation of the island. This island is a part of the tiny archipelago of the Terre Islands. These islands may also be known as the Petite Terre Islands due to their small size, these 2 islands have a combined total land mass of 0.71815 square miles (1.859999961 square kilometer). The Terre Islands directly translated from French into English as the Earth islands or the Land islands. However, the name was possibly not meant to be translated. This island itself as well as the Terre Island Group is a part of the Lesser Antilles & is a part of the municipality of Guadeloupe. Guadeloupe is owned by France as of 2024. A good way to see Guadeloupe on a map is to look for the archipelago that is vaguely shaped like a butterfly. This Island is in the Atlantic Ocean. The island also is a part of the Caribbean Sea. It exists in the Caribbean, being approximately 305.90 Nautical / Marine miles from Venezuela. It is also 1221.59 Nautical / Marine miles from Florida, which is a state of the United States. Terre de bas is so minuscule that is often not featured on maps & nautical maps of it are very scarce. The island is extremely biodiverse as it is very untouched by most humans so its natural environment is healthy. It has many nutrients & marine creatures that surround the island. One of the best examples of these intelligent & unique species is the West Indian Manatee. The previous article to this talks completely & solely about the West Indian manatee & its placement in the marine environment of Terre-De-Bas. The flora of these marine ecosystems is also especially unique. The majority of Terre-De-Bas’s coastal areas have been untouched & left alone by the few locals on the island. The marine ecosystems that are in need of maintenance are receiving it  & many conservation efforts have been made to protect & ensure the complete safety of the marine wildlife. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature,  marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the petite & peaceful island of Terre-De-Bas The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Basic Information The salinity of the island has not been measured & released to the public domain. Since the island is in the Atlantic, it will most likely have a higher salinity than say the Pacific Ocean or the Indian Ocean. Salt deposits / Brine Pools may be more common around the island due to the higher salinity. However, the existence of brine pools around the island has not been proven. The salinity levels of the Atlantic Ocean at any given time are between 35.5 & 34.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no ongoing factors that would lead to the salinity level being altered. The oceanic temperatures around the island can be found on a plethora of websites however the easiest to navigate & the most accurate ones are https://www.seatemperature.org , https://seatemperature.net , https://weather-and-climate.com , & https://seatemperature.info . The tidal chart can also be found on the majority of these websites as well. The tides usually never get over 1.5 meters tall (4.92126 feet) due to the strange placement of Terre-de-bas. The surf is never usually dangerously high.  The riptide also usually never becomes dangerously prominent to the point where it makes swimming a safety hazard. Currents around the island are not randomly forming & the majority of the existing currents do not go closely to the coastal areas. Swimming & scuba diving are incredibly common recreational activities that take place on Terre-de-bas. There is not very polluted water around the island as can be seen by the thriving wildlife & clear water. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine miles is 5,291.3 feet (1612.78824 meters or 1.61278824 kilometers) deep. The majority of the marine geographic terrain is composed of coral, mud, sand, & rock. Oceanic mounds are not very common around the island. There are no volcanoes that are oceanic in nature that exist in Guadeloupean waters. The closest oceanic volcano is Kick ‘em Jenny which is just north of the Country of Grenada, as well as the Grenadines. There are a total of 47 designated marine protected areas in Guadeloupe as of 2024. Only 1 of which is extremely highly protected & holds much higher penalties for destruction of the area than the 46 other marine protected areas. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Terre-De-Bas Coral Reefed Areas Coral reefed areas are usually located around close coastal areas. They can often be seen from the beaches & the piers of Terre-De-Bas. They are often located within 2,000 feet or less of the coast. All coral reefs found around Terre-De-Bas are fringing type rather than Barrier. It is unknown all the coral species around Terre-De-Bas. Unfortunately, the majority of these coral reefs are in horrible conditions. This is due to rising salinity levels, high sedimentation, & an overload of nutrients in the coastal waters which stems from excessive use of fertilizer. Guadeloupe does however have a barrier reef, just in the northern end of the archipelago which is not where Terre-De-Bas exists. Seagrass Bedded Areas There is no specific place where these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually, smaller animals are found here, which makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses give birth. It consists mostly of seagrass. It also works as the fish nursery for majority of the fish. The main species of seagrasses around Guadeloupe are Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass),& Syringodium filiform (filament grass). Turtle grass is more prominent & is found as deep as 10 meters (32.8084 feet). Filiment grass, however, makes up the majority of the deeper seagrass meadows. Syringodium Filiform is found as deep as 30 meters (98.4252 feet), this seagrass is usually found further off the coast rather than the other species. Seagrass meadows are also usually found near mangrove forests or are found embellishing coral reefs. Mangrove Forests Mangrove forests are areas where the trees & the ocean connect. This creates a unique ecosystem in which there is shallow brackish water, & lots of roots. The tree roots make a sort of underwater labyrinth for the fish & other creatures to enjoy. Mangrove forests are usually found further inland than mangrove coasts. The ocean usually runs off into these areas. Mangrove forests are especially unique because they have excessive nutrients. This is due to the meeting of the forest organisms & the oceanic organisms. The exact species of these mangrove trees have currently not been released to the public domain. Mangrove Coasts Mangrove coasts are extremely similar to mangrove forests. However, instead of the ocean running off into the mangrove forests, with mangrove coasts the mangrove trees grow directly along the coast. This provides unique shelter for all oceanic species. The mangrove tree species here are the most likely same here are they are in the mangrove forests—however these areas are at extreme threat levels due to the rising oceans. The Documented Marine Flora of Terre-De-Bas There are currently 2 seagrass species known to exist around Terre-De-Bas. These species have been stated in the subsections above. These species are known as Thalassia Testudinum (Turtle grass), & Syringodium Filiform (Filament grass). These grasses are not endemic to Terre-De-Bas & are found throughout the Lesser Antilles. These seagrasses are found in the highest density around the northern most facing side of the island. However, seagrasses aren’t the islands only marine Flora. Many different types of algae surround the island as well. The most prominent type of algae is brown algae, specifically from the genus Sargassum. It is well known for growing around all Caribbean islands & frequently washing up along these isles' shorelines. Sargassum is a a genus that contains most brown macroalgae species. It is unknown the exact amount of brown algae species that occupy Terre-De-Bas. The Documented Marine Fauna of Terre-De-Bas In marine fauna ,Terre-De-Bas is extremely diverse. This is due to the diversity of ecosystems which provide shelter as well as food & large amounts of nutrients. However, there are other contributing factors as to the biodiversity of Terre-De-Bas. Most often creatures will migrate up the lesser Antilles toyear-round find more prey, this makes it so that most creatures will not live year round around Terre-De-Bas. However biodiversity is slowly declining due to the increasing sea levels, decreasing amounts of coral, & mismanagement of wastewater. The best places to see these marine creatures that we speak of are in the areas with coral reefs. The reason for that is due to the majority of the creatures hunting in the coral reefs or living in the coral reefs. There are no known marine species that are endemic specifically to the island of Terre-De-Bas. However, there are some marine endemic species in Guadeloupe. The majority of coral reefs are tino the northern areas of the island. For this article, we will not be counting smaller organisms, or organisms that are in low density around the island. The most prominent marine species that are found around Terre-De-Bas are as follows: Trichechus Manatus (The West Indian manatee), Balaenoptera Acutorostrata (Northern Minke Whale), Balaenoptera Borealis (Sei Whale), Balaenoptera Brydei (Bryde’s whale), Balaenoptera Musculus (Blue Whale), Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whale), Short-Beaked Common Dolphin (Delphinus Delphis), Fersea Attenuata (Pygmy Killer Whale), Globicephala Macrorhyncus (Short-finned pilot whale), Lagenodelphis Hosei (Frasers Dolphin), Grampus Griseus (Risso’s Dolphin), Orcinus Orca (Killer Whale), Peponocephala Electra (Melon-Headed Whale), Pseudorca Crassidens (False Killer Whale), Stenella Attenuata (Pantropical Spotted Dolphin), Stenella Clymene (Clymene Dolphin), Stenella Coeruleoalba (Striped Dolphin), Stenella Longirostris (Spinners Dolphin), Stenella Frontalis (Atlantic Spotted Dolphin), Steno Bredanensis (Rough-Toothed Dolphin), Tursiops Truncatus (Common Bottlenose Dolphin), Physeter Catodon (Sperm Whale), Kogia Breviceps (Pygmy sperm whale), Kogia Sima (Dwarf Sperm Whale), Mesoplodon Europaeus (Gervais’s Beaked Whale), Ziphius Cavirostris (Cuivers Beaked Whale), Sphyraena Barracuda (Great Barracuda), Chelonia Mydas (Green Sea Turtle), Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle), & Finally, Albula Vulpes (Bonefish). How The Marine Resources Of Terre-De-Bas Were Utilized & How It Affected The Marine Environment The marine resources of Terre-De-Bas were most often utilized by commercial fishing & fishing for personal uses. Many edible fish are found around Terre-De-Bas which is what attracts the amount of fishermen. This for obvious reasons, causes the marine species to become less prominent in that area, which will cause many issues. A good example of this was when most of the fish that ate the Crown of Thorns starfish around Tutuila were hunted into local extinction, this then caused the population of the Crown Of Thorns to spike. The Crown Of Thorns then went about eating all the coral which caused a large environmental crisis. Another common use is for eco-tourism which is tourism for the specific purpose of visiting the natural environment. However, this eco-tourism can be unethical at times & lead to pollution & destruction of the natural marine environment. Thankfully, most of the marine resources of Terre-De-Bas have been left alone. This gives Terre-De-Bas the ability to support the mass amount of marine animals that it has today. Directories / Credits https://mpatlas.org/countries/GLP https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285934691_Recent_evolution_of_the_coral_reefs_of_Guadeloupe_and_Saint-_Barthelemy_Islands https://www.cayoli.fr/en/environment/seagrass-meadow/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication_262840512_First_assessment_of_the_diversity_of_coralline_species_forming_maerl_and_rhodoliths_in_Guadeloupe_Caribbean_using_an_integrative_systematic_approach https://www.shelltonewhaleproject.org/en/dauphins-et-baleines-en-guadeloupe/ https://www.atlantisformation-guadeloupe.com/en/m/Discover-the-Cousteau-Marine-Park-its-wildlife-and-outstanding-marine-life_a8.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The West Indian Manatee Of Terre-de-Bas, Guadeloupe (Trichechus Manatus) This month's article series will discuss... the French isle of Terre-de-Bas. Terre de bas translates from French into English into the words bottomland, lowland, or downland. This is most likely due to the very low elevation of the island. This island is a part of the tiny archipelago of the Terre Islands. The Terre Island directly translates from French into English as the Earth islands or the Land islands. However, the name was possibly not meant to be translated. This island is a part of the lesser Antilles & is a part of the municipality of Guadeloupe. Guadeloupe is owned by France as of 2024. This island is in the Atlantic Ocean. It exists in the Caribbean, being approximately 305.90 Nautical / Marine miles from Venezuela. It is also 1221.59 Nautical / Marine miles from Florida, which is a state of the United States. Terre de bas is so small that is often not featured on maps & nautical maps of it are very scarce. The island is extremely biodiverse as it is very untouched by most humans so its natural environment is healthy. It has many nutrients & marine creatures that surround the island. However, this article is not to talk about the island itself but to speak about one of the most important marine creatures in the sea around it. That creature is the marine organism known as the West Indian Manatee. This animal lives around Guadeloupe & often consumes aquatic plants. They are very closely related to dugongs & this species has multiple subspecies. These manatees are friendly & seem to be curious of humans, their curiosity towards humans leads them to occasionally approach humans in the waters. They are completely harmless & are unable to even consume meat so there is no issue of them attacking someone on purpose even if provoked. They will more often just move out of the way instead of reacting violently. They also swim in a way in which their head may poke out of the water. They do not have gills, & are mammals instead. They breathe air & only breathe through their nostrils. The manatee is a social & somewhat affectionate creature, they are also incredibly gentle towards humans. However, they are still wild so avoid contact with the manatee even if it swims up to you. Being quite lazy creatures, they often can be seen lounging around the water or occasionally consuming the marine flora that they come across. They are herbivorous in diet. Additionally, the reason that they are called West Indian manatees is because they are found throughout the western Indies, they are not found anywhere around India or Asia for that matter. In this article, we will discuss the life of the West Indian Manatee, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the West Indian Manatee, the distribution of the West Indian Manatee, & finally the scientific detailings of the West Indian Manatee. With that being said, let us delve into this loveable & lazy creature.  The Life Of The Indian West Manatee The West Indian manatee was first described by Carl Linnaeus. It was described in 1758 in the book known as the 10th edition of Systema Naturae. It is not said how or where this animal was first found however it can be assumed that it was spotted in the Caribbean or off the coast of Brazil. The largest West Indian manatee grew to be 15 feet (4.572 meters) long, However, it is rare that a manatee gets this long, it is more likely that they will only grow up to 10.5 feet (3.2004 meters) long. The adult female manatees tend to be larger than then the male manatees on average. The females also tend to be heavier than the males in order to support the females while they are pregnant. They often weigh between 990 pounds (449.056 kilograms) & 3,500 pounds (1587.573 kilograms). This is much less compared to their larger ancestor the Steller sea cow. They live approximately 40 years on average in the wild. However the oldest individual was snooty, who lived to be 68 years old. A manatee's level of intellect is incredibly hard to measure because we cannot exactly test them. They have incredible sensory abilities & have hairs all over their body that they use to feel water ripples in the water around them. These hairs are known as vibrissae. They are able to feel emotions & feel love for each other. They all have unique personalities just like humans, they aren’t too far off from us in social & emotional structure. They are able to communicate these emotions by squeaks & vocalizations. They also have advanced long-term memory & can remember as well as recognize humans whom they have formed bonds with. They also can prefer certain humans over others. It is not exactly clear how long this species, in particular, has existed, however, manatees as a whole have existed for approximately 50 million years. Manatees are not territorial & will live in pairs in certain areas of coastal waters. They swim by moving their tails in an up & down motion in order to propel themselves. They may swim at 5 miles per hour while swimming in this way, however, there is another way that they swim. They may do the same motion but instead on quicker bursts, this will get them at speeds up to 15 miles per hour. When they are resting they look as if they are standing straight up on their tails. They rest for up to 12 hours a day & do sleep. They are herbivores & will only consume aquatic flora. They are not cannibalistic in any form. They will eat whenever they feel like it & do not have feeding cycles. They have no natural predators due to the fact that they are incredibly long & that they have so much blubber that they physically cannot be eaten. They use their flexible frontal limbs in order to hold vegetation while they consume it. They also use these limbs to steer around water. They are most often gray in color but can range from black to light brown. Their skin is wrinkled & covered sparsely with vibrissae are sometimes spotted with algae or even barnacles. They have large, heavy, rounded & oval-shaped bodies with paired flippers & a round paddle-shaped tail. The Mating Practices, Procedures, Tactics & Cycles Of The West Indian Manatee West Indian manatees mate via sexual reproduction. They are not monogamous & will mate with a new male or female every season. They do appear to have a particular mating season, this season being from March to November. However, mating is a year-round activity. The female manatees will reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years old. The males may reach maturity as late as 7 years old. They are not hermaphroditic & are unable to change sexes. It is currently unclear as to whether calves are able to be born intersex or not. The females are most fertile at 7-20 years old. The females will reproduce every 2-5 years & will usually only reproduce 1 single calf. Having twins is incredibly rare & dangerous for the mother. The approximate gestation period of a West Indian manatee is 11-12 months. The baby will be born underwater. The calf will stay with the mother for 2 years, during this time the calf will drink milk from its mother. West Indian manatees are able to lactate. The area from which the milk comes out is the nipple which is located just behind the forelimb of the mother. When the mother is ready to mate she will attract the males & form mating herds. The females will also exhibit searching behaviors. These main behavior is dispersing anal gland mucus onto logs or various other objects in order to attract males to her. As many as 20 males will follow the females in the mating herd. They will push & shove each other in order to have a higher chance of mating with the female. They will mate via internal fertilization. This means that the male will use his penis to eject the semen into the female. There are also certain areas where manatees will go specifically when looking for a mate.  The Distribution Of The West Indian Manatee The West Indian manatee is found all throughout the Caribbean. It has been found especially high density throughout the Gulf of Mexico. It is found as far south as northern Brazil & as far north as the US state of Virginia. They prefer warmer water most likely due to there being a higher quantity of algae & seaweed in tropical areas. It is not found on the western side of the Panama Canal. This species does have multiple subspecies however it is not often found in one of the species' primary areas. These subspecies are Trichechus Manatus Manatus (Antillean manatee) & Trichechus Manatus Latirostros. There are no other subspecies of Trichechus Manatus as of 2024. However, this may change.  The Scientific Detailings Of The West Indian Manatee  Manatees are interesting for many reasons, but especially because they only eat aquatic plants yet they grow to about the size of a horse or a dwarf cattle. The reason that they can eat only aquatic flora & still be absurdly large for this is because they have incredibly low bodily fat. The majority of the space in their body is taken up by organs. They do not need very much insulation because they are in a tropical area. This means that they are already warm enough therefore they do not need much protection from the cold. It is scientifically proven that The output of the heat from the food digesting in their body helps manatees avoid being as cold & as affected by the cold in the winter. In conclusion, manatees are not fat at all they just have extremely large organs. This means theoretically by restricting the size of the organs on a manatee that the manatee will be smaller. Even though they are incredibly large they can somersault about the water & go onto land every now & then. They are then able to slip back into the water with ease. They are incredibly agile creatures. This species is classified as Vulnerable under the IUCN red list. A manatee's teeth are short, stubby, blunt, & rounded. This is due to their herbivorous appetite & diet. These teeth are used to grind the plants enough to the point where they are able to swallow it. The teeth are also further toward the back of the jaw as opposed to humans. With age, the individual tooth will also grow 2 notches in it. This will cause the tooth to flatten over time. A manatee will have between 24 & 32 teeth, however, it is usually closer to 28 teeth than 32.  The image above depicts the bodily system of a manatee. As can be seen, they do have individual bones for fingers. This is a remanent of their ancestors, these ancestors would also evolve into elephants. Their leg bones have long disappeared however the arms have not yet become an evolutionary thing of the past. These fingers in their arm-like limbs help them move water about, hold food in place, & many other things. They are extremely flexible, they are somewhat akin to human arms. They also have fingernails which are visible on the outside of the body. They have incredibly short & stubby snouts as well. Remanent bones such as the hyoid bones located near the neck region, are still found in the manatee to this day. These bones are similar to the Adam's apple which is seen in male humans. Researchers have concluded that there is no known use of these bones in the manatee. The manatee has pelvic bones, but they are not attached to its main skeletal frame & are fairly small compared to the rest of the manatee’s skeletal proportions. These pelvic bones are remnants of a time when manatees manatees' ancestors lived on land. The bones are found in a cartilage tissue area of the body in the vicinity of the reproductive organs and the urinary bladder. These bones are soft when the manatee is a juvenile & later harden as they mature, much like knee caps in human juveniles. This is not able to be seen, however, their lungs are approximately 1 meter long, 20 centimeters wide & less than 5 centimeters thick. Their large lungs help them to control their buoyancy. Unlike the majority of mammals, manatees' lungs lay along the spinal cord rather than being inside the ribcage. Manatees do not have external eyelids or eyelashes. Their eye muscles close in a circular motion, akin to an aperture on a camera. Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity for fur or hair, & three middle ear bones. There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Sirenia. This is an order that holds the majority of all manatees & dugongs as they are closely related. A defining characteristic of this order is the fact that they are all fully herbivorous & they all grow to be incredibly large. Their family is Trichechidae. All surviving species in this family are classified as manatees. There are several extinct genera classified under this family however they do not count for the purpose of this. There are currently 8 species under this family. Their genus is Trichechus. All species classified under this genus are manatees. This genus holds all surviving species of manatees as of 2024. There are currently 5 species classified under this family at this time, However 1 of those species is questionable as to whether it classifies as its species or not. This species Binomial name is Trichechus Manatus. This species has 2 subspecies known as Trichechus Manatus Manatus & Trichechus Manatus Latriostros.  Directories / Credits https://oceana.org/blog/what-you-didnt-know-about-manatees-honor-manatee-awareness-month/ https://myfwc.com/education/wildlife/manatee/facts-and-information/ https:// swimmingwiththemanatees.com/life-expectancy-of-manatee/ https://www.manatee-world.com/manatee-social-structure/ https://www.bioexpedition.com/manatee-communication/ https://riverventures.com/blog/2022/11/5/manatee-qampa-are-manatees-friendly-to-humans?format=amp https://research.ufl.edu/publications/explore/v07n2/manatees.html https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Mammals/West-Indian-Manatee https://nhpbs.org/natureworks/manatee.htm#6 https://animalcorner.org/animals/west-indian-manatee/ https://www.livescience.com/53164-animal-sex-manatees.html http://savethemanatee-archive.org/faq_body_fat.html https://myfwc.com/education/wildlife/manatee/facts-and-information/ Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ocho

The Documented History & Modern Economic State Of Tutuila, American Samoa In today’s article we will be discussing the long & complicated history behind the American Samoan island of Tutuila. Tutuila is the largest island & the island with the capital in the archipelago of American Samoa. Tutuila is the largest & capital island in the archipelago known as American Samoa. This island is a territory of the United States Of America. It is in the middle of Oceania. It exists as part of the Samoan islands in the central Pacific Ocean. It is incredibly far from the closest continent that is considered mainland. It stands at 17,439.11 nautical miles from the continent of Australia. It is 15,939.46 miles from the country of China. It is also 7,830.43 Nautical miles from Antarctica. This island has changed many hands throughout its history. It is extremely biodiverse & attracts animals from most corners of Polynesia, this is often seen throughout its history. This was also a reason for conflicts between the natives & others. The island itself was formed during the early Pliocene age. This places it at between 5.4 million & 3.4 million years ago. It was formed by a volcanic eruption, it is not clear if this eruption also formed the surrounding islands or not. Its largest settlement is known as Pago Pago, it is the capital of American Samoa. During its last census it had 11,500 people, or 20.581287135801% of the total population on the island. The total population of the island in its last census in 2000 registered as 55,876 people. Its highest elevation is Matafao peak, standing at a mere 653 meters (2142.39 feet). The island is a popular sight for hiking, recreational swimming, surfing, fishing, scuba diving, & snorkelling. These all contribute to the industry of Eco-tourism. The reason for the majority of its scuba diving is due to the beautiful shallow coral reefs off of the coast. Sunken world war 2 relics can also be found off the coast, this is a contributing factor to the large scuba diving / snorkelling industry. These coral reefs are found all around the island. The island also has mountainous regions, which is what makes hiking popular. The oceans surrounding Tutuila are of importance to the legends of the island. These legends will be discussed later in the article. The island is divided into 2 administrative districts, the western & the eastern. The eastern area has 5 counties & so does the western. Even though there are multiple counties, American Samoa has only 1 zip-code, that zip-code is 96799. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Tutuila as a whole, The known aboriginals of Tutuila, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Tutuila, & finally a segment on the American Samoan economy. With that being said, let us delve into the island of Tutuila. The Documented History Of Tutuila Before Colonization Before Colonization by the Europeans, the Polynesians occupied Tutuila along with the rest of Samoa. The Polynesians most likely arrived in 1000 B.C. However it may have been as late as 800 B.C. None the less, By 600 B.C they established a village at the modern day area of Tula. Tula is on the eastern side of Tutuila. There is much evidence to believe that after this point Polynesians still came in & out. The reason for this hypothesis is because the Polynesians on Tutuila managed to keep in contact with the majority of the neighbouring islands. After this point, Tutuila served as a place of exile for the warriors & the chiefs who had been defeated in the wars that ravaged much of Upolu for centuries. It also served as a place for Political Prisoners. Namely Upolu rulers & warriors. After this point unfortunately not much is known about Polynesian activity on the island. However it is believed that this was the first inhabited island of Samoa & from Tutuila they spread to the other samoan islands. After Colonization 18th Century In the year of 1722 Jacob Roggeveen a dutch explorer, visited the island chain that contains Tutuila. He was the first to make European contact with this island chain. From our knowledge he visited the eastern side of the island. However it seems that he did not do much with this information. In the year of 1786 french admiral & explorer Louis Antonie de Bougainville visited the Samoan islands, he called them the Navigator islands. His reasoning for this name in particular is because of his observation of the Polynesians practice of navigating the water in dug out canoes to catch Tuna. Unfortunately after this point there were no major historical events that were recorded on the island. 19th Century During the 1810’s & 1820’s many European whalers & protestant missionaries arrived on the islands. However the majority of them arrived in the 1830’s. In doing so, the whalers severely weakened & disrupted the local whale population. This caused the local whale population to go into near extinction. The most notable of these visitors were sir English missionary John Williams of the London Missionary Society, & french naval officer Louis de Freycinet who arrived in October of 1819. This caused him to rename Tutuila “Rose island”. He named it this after his wife Rose de Freycinet who was a fellow french explorer. European (majority of which were french) settlers & Samoan people chose to develop a village on the island of Upolu instead of further developing Tutuila. This village was named Apia. After they had fully developed Apia, it became their main major trading station. In 1872 the United States Naval Force decided that Tutuilas deep water Pago Pago harbour would be the best place for a refuelling station for the brand new vessel service from San Francisco, CA to Sydney, AU. They decided to negotiate with the natives to make this happen, & they did. After 6 years of negotiations the US congress ratified the treaty. This would go on to be implemented. After such success many other foreign countries became interested in the tiny island. Great Britain & Germany in particular, were expressing their interest in claiming this island. In 1879 the native Samoans said they they would like to trade with all 3 of the countries. This boosted their international relations by a large percentage. The 3 countries then decided to form a Tripartite government over all of the Samoan islands after this. In the year of 1889, the three countries decided to hold a conference in Berlin to discuss the political future of the islands & to attempt to resolve their differences on that topic. The Americans expressed their extreme dissatisfaction with not having government rein over the islands. The countries ongoing differences led to a rather quick proposal in 1899. This proposal proposed to apportion their control among different parts of the Samoan islands that had been occupied. This ended up forming the political territory of American Samoa. The western islands then went under European control. 20th Century The Samoans ended up signing off on the ides to apparition the islands & the flag of the U.S.A was raised on Tutuila on April 17th of 1900. At this time the territory was not called American Samoa, it remained that way until 1911. The proposal was also not officially ratified by U.S congress until 1929. During the 2nd world war Tutuila became extremely convenient due to its close placement to Asia. Led by Colonel Lester A. Dessez, the U.S Marine Corps established a military base on Tutuila as well as erected concrete bunkers along the island’s coast. Despite the island’s strategic importance, it escaped almost unscathed from the war. The only exception being attacked was a launch from a Japanese submarine on January 11th of 1942. Since 1951, administration of Tutuila & the other islands of American Samoa has been the responsibility of the US Department of the Interior. In 1956 Peter Tali Coleman became the first Samoan-born governor of American Samoa. In 1960 during his tenure, protections for the islanders were approved. This included protection from confiscation of their lands & from loss of their cultural practices. After 1960, the official flag of American Samoa was made the territories official flag. In 1961 the US president John Fitzgerald Kennedy , appointed Hyrum Rex Lee as governor of American Samoa & approved US expenditure of massive funds to develop Tutuila. Which throughout the 1960s was used to finance the building of an international airport, seaport facilities, roads, schools, houses, a hospital, a tuna cannery, a modern hotel, and the installation of electricity throughout the country. In 1962, Western Samoa became independent of New Zealand, leading to uncertainty about whether the US would continue to have control of American Samoa. The massive US development efforts during the 1960s served to effectively solidify support for the continuation of Tutuila and the rest of American Samoa as a dependency of the United States. In July of 1997 Western Samoa officially changed its name to just Samoa. The reason for this name change was most likely because it would include the Americans of American Samoa. Modernly, American Samoa is an unincorporated Territory of the United States Of America. It is governed & protected by the Department’s Office of Insular Affairs. American Samoa is primarily divided into two political districts; the Eastern District & The Western District. The western district has 4 counties while the eastern district has 5 counties. The Aboriginals Of Tutuila The Polynesians of Tutuila The Polynesians were a sea migrating group of people who absolutely dominated Oceania before the Europeans came. They would migrate by sea & take over each island. They most likely originated in Taiwan or Vietnam. They had their own languages that were unfortunately, completely lost to time. They developed the majority of their languages between 3,000 & 1,000 B.C. They had their own Polynesian mythology. This religion is still practiced by some Polynesian tribes to this day. This mythology is meant to recount ancient times & the adventures of their gods, which are known as Atua. Their religion also involves traditional tattooing. One of the most interesting of their Atua the atua known as Tāne Mahuta. Tāne Mahuta is the creator of all life, the Sky father, & the earth mother. Tāne Mahuta is male in traditional mythology. He may also be known as Tāne-nui-a-rangi. The Polynesians would often fish around the island & effectively have a system of trade with the fish. They most often caught Tuna & it seems that Tuna was incredibly high value. The ancient Polynesians would cultivate Taro, sweet potato, banana, coconut, & breadfruit. This along with seafood & a few other meats would compose an ancient Polynesians diet. They made canoes from the trees on Tutuila, as Tutuila is incredibly densely wooded. They also developed their own navigational system. This system was developed to utilize the stars & the clouds in order to guide them. The Polynesians from this area most likely migrated from Taiwan to Papua New Guinea, Then from Papua New Guinea to Vanuatu, Them from there to Tutuila. Overall, Polynesians migrated all throughout Oceania & to southern parts of Asia. They migrated in a pattern that is a kin to a triangle. This pattern is now officially known as the Polynesian Triangle. However it will never truly be known the exact way they they dispersed. There are currently 3 major models as to how they could have dispersed throughout the Pacific. The first settlement that they built on the island was Tula. This village still exists to this day. They did have a chief system & a type of organized government system. This strong system was heavily influenced & made by 2 early female chiefs. These chiefs were Nafanua & Salamasina. This system was heavily matriarchal. It seems they also were a very social society, as they would often have many festivals & celebrations. The Most Destructive Natural & Man-Caused Disasters That Have Affected Tutuila No. 1 Tropical Cyclone Val Tropical cyclone Val was a Tropical Cyclone in the Pacific ocean. It lasted from the dates of December 4th 1991 to December 17th 1991. It affected the majority of Eastern Oceania. It caused a total of 17 direct & indirect fatalities. This storm was also the direct cause of multiple chemical spills around the island. It’s highest wind speed 1 minute sustained was 145 miles per hour (233.355 kilometers). Its lowest recorded pressure is 940 mbar. It caused 381 million USD in damages for all countries. Adjusted for modern inflation that would be 832,803,898.68 or 832 Million dollars. No. 2009 Samoa Earthquake & Tsunami The 2009 Samoan Earthquake & tsunami took place on the 29th of September. It was set off by an 8.1 magnitude earthquake. It then set off a tsunami due to the earthquake originating from the ocean. It affected the majority of Polynesia & Oceania. It went as far south as New Zealand & as far north as San Francisco bay. It did slightly affect the bay area. This caused a total of 189 confirmed fatalities on all countries. No. 3 Crown Of Thorns Outbreak (Environmental Disaster) This was an environmental catastrophe of the Crown Of Thorns spreading at a rapid uncontrollable pace. The crown of thorns is a type of starfish that has long spikes that protrude out of its body & appendages. When it was released near Tutuila, it caused absolute havoc. It grew over the coral & prevented it from sucking in nutrients. This caused approximately 90 percent of all Tutuilan coral to die within a few years. Luckily, this issue is being addressed & resolved by way of releasing certain fish who will consume the crown of thorns. The Economic State Of Tutuila / American Samoa The economy of American Samoa is rather stable as of 2024. It did take somewhat of a hit during 2020 due to the lack of tourism however since tourism isn’t their only industry they recovered alright. Their GDP is approximately 709 million USD. Their GDP rank is 187th Nominal.Their gdp per capita is 12,844.90 USD. They use USD has their currency on American Samoa & do not seem to accept any other currency. Their largest industries as of 2024 are tuna fishing, tuna canning, & handicrafts. Their current labor force is 17,630. Their unemployment rate is 8.36% of the population or 4,606.6108 people as the total population of American Samoa is 55,103. Their labor force by occupation is 34% agriculture (5994.2 persons), 33% manufacturing (5817.9 persons) & 33% services (5817.9 persons). Their main export partners were Indonesia, Australia, Japan, & Samoa. Their publicly traded stock markets are the New York Stock Exchange & Nasdaq. The average fair market price for a 1 bedroom apartment on American Samoa is 568 USD per month, for a 2 bedroom it is 748 USD per month, for a 3 bedroom it is 1,079 USD per month, for a 4 bedroom it is 1,147 USD per month. Directories / Credits Stanley, David (2004). Moon Handbooks South Pacific . David Stanley. p. 475 . ISBN 978-1-56691-411-6 . Retrieved December 18, 2010. “Report on Hurricane Val in American Samoa.” ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Islands of American Samoa (United States)" . Tutuila (391). UN System-Wide Earthwatch Web Site . Retrieved November 24, 2010. ^ Krämer, Augustin (2000). The Samoa Islands. University of Hawaii Press. Page 423. ISBN 9780824822194 . ^ Stanley, p.480 ^ a b c d e Dragicevich, Peter; Craig McLachlan (2009). Lonely Planet Samoa & Tonga . Lonely Planet. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-1-74104-818-6 . Retrieved December 18, 2010. ^ a b c d e f g David Stanley (1985). South Pacific handbook . David Stanley. pp. 230–. ISBN 978-0-918373-05-2 . Retrieved 21 December 2010. ^ Va'a, Unasa L.F. "Aspects of Western Sāmoa Migration to American Sāmoa" (PDF). The Journal of Sāmoan Studies. 3: 1. ^ a b c d e f g Brij V. Lal; Kate Fortune (2000). The Pacific Islands: an encyclopedia . University of Hawaii Press. pp. 560–. ISBN 978-0-8248-2265-1 . Retrieved 21 December 2010. ^ a b "Tutuila: Eastern District and Western District" . United States Census Bureau. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ Hills, J.W. (2010). O upu muamua i le Tala i le Lalolagi mo e ua faatoa a'oa'oina u lea mataupu: Elementary Geography. Nabu Press. Page 60. ISBN 9781147952896 . ^ a b c "Travel distance calculator between cities" . Map Crow. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ a b c Holly Hughes, Alexis Lipsitz Flippin, Julie Duchaine, Sylvie Murphy (2009). Frommer's 500 Extraordinary Islands . Frommer's . p. 86. ISBN 978-0-470-50070-5 . ^ The Nautical magazine . Fisher, Son & Co. 1840. p. 754. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ Google Maps (Map). Google. ^ Bing Maps (Map). Microsoft and Harris Corporation Earthstar Geographics LLC. ^ a b "Economy of American Samoa" . Nation Master Encyclopedia. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ a b c d "Effect of Cyclone Val on areas proposed for inclusion in the National Park of American Samoa" (PDF). A report to the U.S. National Park Service. Botany.hawaii.edu . pp. 3–4. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 4, 2012. Retrieved December 18, 2010. ^ a b c d Dragicevich, p.88 ^ "FEMA posts 11 disaster declarations for territory over last 40 yrs" . Samoanews. November 4, 2010. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved December 18, 2010. ^ Ward, R. Gerard; Paul Ashcroft (1998). Samoa: mapping the diversity . editorips@usp.ac.fj . pp. 17–21. ISBN 978-982-02-0134-7 . Retrieved December 17, 2010. ^ "Fagatele Bay Marine Sanctuary" . Research and Monitoring. Official Site of the Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Archived from the original on October 28, 2010. Retrieved December 17, 2010. ^ Stanley, pp. 475–477 ^ Stanley, pp. 479–481 https://www.doi.gov/emergency/factsheets/american-samoa-earthquake-and-tsunami-damage https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/preliminary-analysis-2009-samoa-tsunami http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1657&Itemid=2824 https://www.britannica.com/place/Tutuila Island https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/australia-and-south-pacific/american-samoa/history-and-culture https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/genetic-study-maps-when-and-how-polynesians-settled-the-pacific-islands-180978733/ https://dbpedia.org/page/Cyclone_Val https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:24069505 https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/2009-Samoa-Tsunami https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/preliminary-analysis-2009-samoa-tsunami https://www.nps.gov/npsa/learn/news/crown-of-thorns.htm https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/may15/crown-of-thorns.html https://www.bea.gov/data/gdp/gdp-american-samoa https://www.economy.com/american-samoa/indicators https://www.rentdata.org/states/american-samoa/2020 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Marine Biological Hall Of Distinction: Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry. Doctor Samuel Stillman Berry is an American Malacologist, Horticulturist, Zoologist, Teuthologist, & Marine Biologist. Berry was born in the year 1887, in Maine. From a young age, he was fascinated with scientific discovery. This is illustrated in that in 1903, at the age of sixteen, he repeatedly wrote to the Division of Mollusks in the Smithsonian Archives. In these letters, he would request various publications. Throughout his life, he published an astounding 209 articles, & described approximately 401 species of molluscs. The only official position he held throughout his career, was as a Librarian & Research Assistant at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, located in La Jolla, California. Aside from this, he was an independent academic. The majority of these articles were published independently, making this feat all the more remarkable. In this article, we will discuss the Early Life & Education of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry, The Career & Later Life Of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry, & The Awards, Honourables, & Achievements of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry. With that being said, let us delve into this malacologist. The Early Life & Education Of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry Samuel Stillman Berry was born on March 16th, 1887, in the town of Unity, Maine. He was born to settlers Ralph, & Evelyn Crie Berry. He spent much of his youth moving between Minneapolis, Phoenix, Pasadena, Oakland, San Francisco, & Winnecooke. His constant movement was due to his mother attempting to find an area that would be best for his fragile health. At the age of 10, he moved with his parents, along with 2 cousins, to Redlands, California. He would go on to become a permanent citizen of California, though he would maintain close connections with his extended family. As explained in the introduction, as a young man, he became interested in the pursuit of scientific discovery. He began collecting books about marine biology & horticulture, & would go on to amass a private research library of over 40,000 titles. He published his first article in the year 1906, titled “Note on a New Variety of Cerithidea sacrata Gld.” in the Nautilus. That same year, he entered Stanford University for a Bachelor’s degree in Zoology. He graduated from Stanford University in the year 1909, & would quickly pursue a master's degree at Harvard University. He graduated with his master's degree shortly after, in 1910 In 1911, his father would unfortunately pass away. For this reason, he began looking after Winnecooke Ranch. In the same year, he was elected to the board of directors of the ranch. pursued his Doctorate from Stanford University once more, & graduated in 1913.  The Career & Later Life Of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry In January of 1913, he became employed at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography. His position was as a Librarian & as a research assistant. He was recommended for employment here by the institute's director, William Emerson Ritter, by his advisor at Stanford, Charles Henry Gilbert. At the institute, he mainly worked on organizing scientific papers, & not much scientific work directly. During his time at the institute, & part of the time prior, Berry became interested in Horticulture. His primary focus was on the hybridization of irises & daffodils, though he was known to have grown peonies, pansies, gladioli, & a few different kinds of small trees at his private residence. The majority of this was in an effort to develop varieties of these plants that would fare well in the natural California climate. At the institute, Berry was not satisfied & combined with his desire to return to Redlands, he decided to stop working as a librarian in 1916, & instead switched his duties to a Non-Resident Research Zoologist. In this role, he studied the institutions' cephalopod collection, & produced a collection of reports on them. In the year 1917, he was elected president of the company holding Winnecooke Ranch, & would keep this title until his unfortunate passing. He would stop his duties at the institute in the year 1918, & become completely independent. Over the rest of his life, he would publish approximately 209 articles, primarily on chitons, cephalopods, & snails. Additionally, he published an unknown amount of horticultural articles, & reviews on horticultural books. During the Great Depression, he would start a horticultural business, & supply new as well as rare varieties of plants to customers. He would stop his horticultural business in the Late 1940s, & transition it back to a pastime. The majority of his malacological articles were first published in his journal, Leaflets on Malacology. He started Leaflets On Malacology in the year 1946, & ran it until 1969. He would publish approximately 26 editions of it. In order to properly recognize all of his contributions to the field of malacology & teuthology, Berry was elected as the only Honorary Life President of the American Malacological Union, the lifetime President of the American Association For the Advancement of Science, & the only Honorary Member of the Cephalopod International Advisory Council. Berry would unfortunately pass away in the year 1984, at the age of 97. His contributions to the field of malacology will not be forgotten.  The Awards, Honourables, Achievements, & Accomplishments Of Samuel Stillman Berry 1. He has named approximately 409 species of cephalopod.  2. He amassed a total of 40,000 books in his private research library.  3. He published 209 articles throughout his life.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Record Unit 7335”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the Smithsonian Institute Archives. Retrieval Date: January 20th, 2024. https://siarchives.si.edu/collections/siris_arc_217491 Citation No. 2: “Berry, Samuel Stillman (P.hd) Photographs”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Conchology. Retrieval Date: January 20th, 2024.  https://www.conchology.be/?t=9001&id=12831 Citation No. 3: “Samuel Stillman Berry (1887-1984)”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Bionity. Retrieval Date: January 20th, 2024. https://www.bionity.com/en/encyclopedia/Samuel_Stillman_Berry.html Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding The Island Of Tutuila, American Samoa In today’s article we will discuss the oceans surrounding the pacific island of Tutuila. Tutuila is the largest & capital island in the archipelago known as American Samoa. This island is a territory of the United States Of America. It is in the middle of Oceania. It is incredibly far from the closest continent that is considered mainland. It stands at 17,439.11 nautical miles from the continent of Australia. It is 15,939.46 miles from the country of China. It is also 7,830.43 Nautical miles from Antarctica. This island sits in the central Pacific Ocean. It is incredibly biodiverse & is home to many unique & intelligent species. A great example of this is the Pantropical spotted dolphin. A reason as to why the island is so biodiverse marine wise, is due to the great environmental factors. These environmental factors (such as coral reefs) are often maintained by humans. The oceans are calm & clear as well, making sea life very visible. The oceans are also biodynamic & have many different environments that creatures may thrive in. The island also has many unique oceanic characteristics such as the many underwater caves around. The ocean also extends quite deep in this area of the pacific leaving room for many interesting & strange deep sea fish. These will be discussed in the article. Many recreational activities take place in the oceans as well, these have formed a sort of bond between the marine wildlife & the humans of Tutuila. The island is also well known for its beaches, which are a staple in both the culture of the island & a staple for the marine animals. A reason as to why the beaches are so important is because they have unique wildlife & due to the amazing oceanic climate of the island. The lagoons of the island are also lined with coral. This creates a strong ecological complex for both the fauna & the humans who often enjoy the lagoons. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the American Samoan island of Tutuila. The Salinity, Temperatures, Tides, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Oceans Surrounding Tutuila The Salinity of the water surrounding the island of Tutuila has not fully been measured or verified. However, it can be assumed that the salinity is approximately between 34 & 37 parts per thousand. Salt deposits are also not common & brine pools are also uncommon. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. Though the island has mangrove forests these do not affect the salinity in any way. There are no randomly forming currents & there are currently no extreme currents which would pose a threat to any person. There is also little to no riptide or very high surf. The water temperatures for this island can be found on a plethora of websites however the easiest to navigate are the following; https://www.surf-forecast.com , https://www.tideschart.com , & https://www.seatemperature.org . The tidal charts can also be found on these websites. The tide usually never gets over 3.7 feet (1.12776 meters) tall from the current algorithm of the waves. The majority of the oceanic floor around the island consists of coral, sand, & rock. There are very little to no seamounts nearby the island. The deepest point within 5 Nautical/Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) of the island is 5975.7 feet (1821.39336 meters) deep. Swimming is completely safe on the island due to the low amount of water pollution, the warm temperatures, & the lack of riptide or high surf. However it is still recommended that you listen to any warnings put out by the American Samoan government. Scuba diving & snorkelling are also a common recreational activities that take place here. A reason for this is the marine biodiversity of the region. The island is in an extremes odd shape, however this shape gives it over 20,000 feet of coastline. Tutuila has approximately 6 designated marine protected areas at the time of publication. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Tutuila Coral Reefed Areas The coral reefs of Tutuila are all fringing coral reefs as opposed to being barrier reefs. There are approximately 250 documented species of coral around the island. This includes 3 species of coral which may grow as large as 10 feet in diameter. However these reefs were almost taken into complete extinction. The reason for this is the crown of thorns starfish. This starfish eats live coral tissue & they can multiple very quickly. This devastated approximately 90% of all fringing coral reefs around American Samoa. Reef algae has also run rampant & sometimes will grow completely over coral & prevent it from sucking in nutrients. This will cause the coral to die. However, parrotfish have been released & have controlled this problem relative nicely. They consume most of the reef algae in order to make sure that it does not asphyxiate the coral reefs. Mangrove Forests These mangrove forests are usually in tidal areas. However they are somewhat different then mangrove lagoons as mangrove lagoons are along lagoons instead of being in tidal areas. They are currently labelled at low to moderate vulnerability. There only 3 species of mangrove that are found growing on the island & those species are; Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (oriental mangrove), Rhizophora mangle (Red mangrove), & finally Xylocarpus moluccensis (The puzzlenut tree) is the rarest of the trio. These ecosystems are however in danger due to the sea level quickly rising. This puts them in severe risk of flooding & going completely underwater. This ecosystem provides many services towards the marine wildlife of Tutuila such as coastal protection, fish nursery habitat, hunting grounds, & shelter. Mangrove Lagoons Mangrove lagoons are quite similar except instead of being around the coast, this ecosystem exists around the lagoons. It provides the same services to the creatures of the lagoons. The area were most of this eco-complex is found is in the Pala Lagoon. The Documented Marine Flora Of Tutuila There are hundreds of types of marine flora of Tutuila. Coral will not be counted for this category as it is technically considered an animal instead of a plant. Unfortunately however not many of them have been documented of identified. One of the ones that has been documented is red algae. Red algae is strictly classified under the division of Rhodophyta. Approximately 133 species of red algae are found in the oceanic regions of Tutuila. Other types of algae have been found such as blue-green algae, brown algae, & green algae. There are approximately 27 documented species of blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) found around Tutuila. There are also 60 species of green algae (Chlorophyta) & 29 species of brown algae (Phaeophyta). As far as we know there are no endemic seagrasses or algae species that live around Tutuila. There are also only 2 seagrass species around the island. As can be seen, red algae is in the most abundance around the island. There are also invasive algae species that are red algae. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Tutuila There are hundreds of types of marine fauna around the island. For the purpose of this article we will only be counting fully aquatic species. This means that water birds will not count. The majority of them are found off the coast or in the lagoons with only a small percentage of them being left in the mangroves. However the mangroves are especially unique as they provide a service that the rest of American Samoa can’t. They provide a special type of shelter & nursery area for fish & mammals to feel safe. The rest of the American Samoan islands do not have mangrove trees, so many animals flock to the island. This is a major reason as to why the island is so extremely biodiverse. Now majority of these creatures are bacteria sized or smaller, we will not be discussing them. With that being said, here is a list of the most prominent species that support the marine ecological complexes of Tutuila; Stenella attenuata (Pantropical spotted dolphin), Balaenoptera musculus (Blue whale), Balaenoptera physalus (Fin whale), Balaenoptera borealis (Sei whale), Physeter macrocephalus (Sperm whale), Eretmochelys imbricata (Hawksbill turtle), Caretta caretta (South Pacific Loggerhead turtle), Lepidochelys olivacea (Olive Ridley turtle), Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle), Isurus oxyrinchus (Short-fin Mako shark), Carcharhinus longimanus (Oceanic White-Tip shark), Manta birostris (Giant Manta-ray), & Sphyrna lewini (Indo-West Pacific Scalloped Hammerhead shark). How The Marine Resources Were Utilized & How It Overall Affected The Marine Environment The marine resources of Tutuila were often utilized for communication fishing. Commercial fishing is still a very large industry in Tutuila. This of course, does strange things to the ecosystem. A good example of this is when a creatures main natural predator gets killed so the creature reproduces very quickly, which in turn causes another animal to decrease in population because the other creature suddenly requires more food needs. The fish were also negatively impacted due to the Pago Pago harbour being built. They were specifically affected by the boat fuel. Eco-tourism is also an increasingly popular industry on Tutuila. Eco-tourism is tourism that is for the purpose of seeing the ecological structures of the island, or seeing the ecosystems of the island. Directories / Credits https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/coral-reef-project-tutuila https://americansamoa.noaa.gov/about/ http://ecoadapt.org/data/documents/AmericanSamoa_VASummary_Mangroves.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349619846_The_Vegetation_of_Eastern_Samo https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Art-Whistler/publication/349619846_The_Vegetation_of_Eastern_Samoa/links/603852354585158939cdb54b/The-Vegetation-of-Eastern-Samoa.pdf?origin=publication_detail https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/science/condition/fbnms/history.html https://www.sprep.org/attachments/VirLib/Regional/skelton-2003-seaweeds-as.pdf http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/basch/uhnpscesu/pdfs/sam/Coles2003AS.pdf https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacific-islands/endangered-species-conservation/marine-protected-species-american-samoa Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Map Of Cape Cod This article is the seventh installment in the Ode To Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map up for Analysis is an antique map of Cape Cod, & Provincetown. Cape Cod Bay is approximately 604 square miles, though the map does not cover the entire bay. All around, the map is in marvelous condition. There is no curling damage, or any damage at all really. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the Beautiful, Cape Cod Bay. The Map Itself Since the map is in English, there is no need to translate it. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in the year 1836, by the United States Topographical Engineers. This map was found by Maps Of Antiquity, & where they originally found it is unknown. This map does not have any marien creature zones outlined on it. Though it is not labelled, the map has Herring Cove Beach displayed on it near the curl of the cape. The map is not very accurate about the lakes near Provincetown, but the proportions of the ocean are very accurate. We suspect that this map was a part of a specific collection, though we cannot say for certain. This map does not have a specific name. It does not have any coves labelled on it, but the coves are there, just unlabelled. The map has many lakes outlined quite prominently, as Provincetown was built near at least 17 lakes. The map is uncoloured, most likely for simplicity of the map. It is unclear whether or not this map was used for militaristic purposes, but it was made for such purposes. The map is primarily centered on Provincetown, not any lighthouses along the coast. Since the map was made in 1836, it is almost guaranteed that it was made using lithography. Especially since it was made by the United States Topographical Engineering Corps, the chances of it being made with an advanced for the time technique were higher. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Of Tutuila, American Samoa (Stenella Attenuata) This months article series will discuss.. The Island of Tutuila! Tutuila is the largest & capital island in the archipelago known as American Samoa. This island is a territory of the United States Of America. It is in the middle of Oceania. It is incredibly far from the closest continent that is considered mainland. It stands at 17,439.11 nautical miles from the continent of Australia. It is 15,939.46 miles from the country of China. It is also 7,830.43 Nautical miles from Antarctica. It is extremely biodiverse due to its nutrients, good climate, & marine protected areas. It also is an attractive area for animals to mate or give birth. The isle is also a common place to find water birds, however for the purpose of this article we will not count them as fully marine animals. However, this article is not for the purpose of discussing the oceans that surround Tutuila. This article is for the purpose of discussing a common animal found in these oceans. That animal, is known as the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin. This animal is a species of dolphin that is found throughout many corners of the world. It however, is found in a higher density throughout Tutuila. These creatures are beautiful & incredibly intelligent creatures. They are capable of using certain oceanic creatures as tools. They often interact with humans in many different ways, they seem to be curious about the human race as they are friendly. However this does not mean that you should approach them as they are still wild creatures & are untamed. This dolphin species is especially friendly towards humans. In this article we will discuss the life of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin , the distribution of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin, & finally the scientific detailings of the Pantropical Spotted Dolphin. With that being said, let us delve into this interesting, complex, important, & brilliant species. The Life Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin This species was first described in 1846, the very genetically close genus however was first described in 1829. The species was first described by french naturalist, Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Baron Cuvier. This is often just abbreviated as Cuvier. It is not mentioned exactly how this creature was discovered, but it can be assumed that it was on a voyage through oceania. Their size is approximately 8.2 feet (2.49936 meters) as a full grown adult, this size estimation is not taking into account gender. The approximate mass of this creature is 260 pounds (117.934 kilograms). Their average lifespan is 43 years. This is actually quite fair for a dolphin. Maturity usually occurs at around 11 years of age. It is a well known fact that dolphins are incredibly smart. They are able to communicate their needs with each other & humans. They are also capable of learning tricks or mirroring other dolphins behaviours. Some studies suggest that dolphins are some of the smartest animals, only second to humans. They are incredibly social animals & seem to have almost their own language. They will make clicking noises towards each other. Using brain size as a barometer, dolphins come in very close to humans in brain to body size ratio. They seem to be the second animals on this scale. However, the vast majority of the ocean is still undiscovered so this very well may change. They also, have developed a use for underwater echolocation. They use echolocation in order to hunt in particularly deep water or water with very low visibility. They also have excellent memories, they are able to remember the faces of their caretakers in certain areas like rehabilitation centers. They also will favour certain humans over others. They are able to crave or want attention from certain humans, this is most well documented in the Nasa-funded experiment known as “Dolphinarium”. In this experiment Margaret Howe Lovatt attempted to teach an adolescent dolphin “Peter” to speak English. This did not work as Peter would become sexually aroused. This experiment proved that dolphins can apparently, lust after humans. This says a lot about the neuroscience behind love in dolphins & how it is eerily similar to humans. Dolphins as a whole have existed for approximately 11 million years. The diet of this creature usually consists of cephalopods & fish. They are not cannibalistic in any form. They usually eat approximately between 16-27 pounds of food. Their metabolism is similar to that of most land mammals. Their most common natural predators are various larger species of sharks & Orcas. Dolphins effectively swim by arching their backs & moving their flukes vertically up & down at a vary fast pace in order to generate momentum in the water and propel themselves forward. At top speed this species of dolphin has been recorded as traveling as fast as 28 kilometers per hour (17.3984 miles per hour). They are not aggressive towards humans unless provoked. They are however, extremely aggressive to each other. Especially during breeding season. They are incredibly social creatures. They can be territorial & males will battle males over certain territories, with females this is not the same. This species is listed as least concern on the IUCN red list. This means that this species is not in need of any conservational assistance & is thriving on its own. There are an estimated 2.5 million of Pantropical spotted dolphins alive at this point. Pantopical spotted dolphins are long & slender creatures in their physical aspects. Pantropical spotted dolphins do not have spots at birth but accumulate them as they age until they are almost completely covered with overlapping patterns. They are also distinguished by a dark cape or coloration on their backs which stretches from their head to almost midway between the dorsal fin & to their tail flukes. Another prominent feature of their physique is a white-tipped beak. The Mating Tactics, Procedures, Cycles, & Practices Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Dolphins mate via sexual reproduction. They usually reach sexual maturity at around 11 years for both genders. Between the ages of 11 & 35 they tend to be most fertile & willing to mate. They do not have a specific breeding month as breeding is a year round activity. A reason for this maybe due to the climate that they choose to live in. The females will usually only give birth every 3-5 years of their lives. These creatures are also not hermaphroditic however occasionally a dolphin maybe born intersex. They mate via internal fertilization which involves the male hooking his penis onto the female in order to ensure reproductive success underwater. This often results in them mating while their stomachs are touching. Their penises are also quite thick & stiff. The penises will not extend as well. It is not known exactly the average of how long this species of dolphins penises are. These penises are also not straight at all, they are in fact quite oddly shaped. The gestation period is approximately 11 months however it may be as long as 1 year. They usually only have 1 child & twins are statistically possible however that it is incredibly unlikely that twins occur. The mother will breastfeed her young for 2-3 years. However they can consume fish in as little as 5 months. They are still dependent on their mothers milk by that point though. They will often take care of the baby up until they are 5-10 years old. At this point the baby may leave to mate or just leave because they are ready to do so. The Distribution Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Pantropical spotted dolphins are not limited to just the southern hemisphere. They are found throughout virtually all tropical & subtropical seas throughout the world. They prefer these areas due to climate & favourable food availability. They are most commonly found in open oceanic areas, they don’t often go extremely close towards the coast. They seem to prefer waters that are above 75° Fahrenheit (23.8889 Celsius). They prefer being in the upper 80 feet of water due to their enjoyment of sun. Their preferred habitat is an area with lots of coral or rocks because those often attract prey. They do not however limit themselves to just 1 area & will go wherever they like. They are found everywhere from east Africa to the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. This creature does not have any known subspecies as of the time of publishing. They also don’t often cross breed with other similar species so having a hybrid would not happen naturally. Even though they are capable of crossbreeding in the wild, they just don’t. The Scientific Detailings Of The Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Dolphins are quite infamous for a few things, but the main thing is that they are able to blow water out of a hole in the top of their head. The reason that they do this is because they have to breathe through their nostrils. They cannot breathe underwater like many other marine animals. To be clear, the water that they blow out does not come from the dolphins lungs. It comes is just water that sits atop their head. They blow this water out to inhale, they are able to only inhale through their blowholes. Their skeletal system is rather similar to that of humans. They are vertebrates. They also have no dorsal fin bone. They have approximately 300 bones in their individual bodies. Their teeth are pyramid-eske & pointed. This makes them perfect for ripping off flesh from creatures bodies. They have approximately 240 teeth. They also do not seem to have multiple layers of teeth. We have already discussed the majority of dolphin neuroscience & the capability of their brains so there is no need to discuss it further. However, as a quick note they are also able to feel jealousy. Especially when fighting over the female dolphins. Their blood is red much like humans. It is believed that all dolphin species have evolved from the creature known as Pakicetus. This creature was a four-legged mammal that would walk on land. This creature lived approximately 50 million years ago. Obviously, many changes had to have been gone through in order for Pakicetus to become modern day dolphin species. The image above depicts the suspicted evolutionary chain of what led to the modern day dolphin. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity of fur or hair, & three middle ear bones. There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Artiodactyla. which are even toed ungulates. Species categorized under Artiodactyla are ungulates, hoofed animals which bear weight equally on two of their five toes, these toes are the third & fourth toes. The other three toes are either present, absent, vestigal, or pointing posteriorly. Their infraorder is that of Cetacea. Key characteristics of this infraorder are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size & exclusively carnivorous diet. Another characteristic is their incredible social intelligence. There are roughly 90 species categorized under Cetacea. Their family is Delphinidae. This family consists of most oceanic dolphins. This family does not include river dolphins. Two characteristics of this order is that they are purely carnivorous & they are all usually incredibly social creatures. Some great examples of this are the fact that majority of these species live in pods or large groups. Their genus is Stenella. This genus consists of 5 current species (however this number may change in the future). This genus is incredibly special & abnormal as it holds the only known confirmed case of a hybrid species in oceanic mammals. This dolphin is known as the Stenella Clymene. This genus is informally known as bridled or spotted dolphins. This species binomial name is known as Stenella Attenuata. Directories / Credits https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/pantropical-spotted-dolphin https://www.vallarta-adventures.com/en/blog/how-smart-are-dolphins https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/how-intelligent-are-whales-and-dolphins/ https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/06/how-a-science-experiment-led-to-sexual-encounters-for-a-woman-and-a-dolphin/372606/ https://allthatsinteresting.com/margaret-howe-Lovatt https://animalia.bio/pantropical-spotted-dolphin Hunting - Wild Dolphin Project http://www.kevkurtz.com/his-blog/2016/11/2/how-do-dolphins-sleep https://www.whalefacts.org/dolphins-move/ https://study.com/learn/lesson/dolphins-mating-reproduction.html#section---LessonSummary https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/the-mechanics-of-dolphin-sex-all-the-dirty-details-you-need-to-know https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/how-do-dolphins-give-birth/ https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/how-do-whales-and-dolphins-breathe/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa ReplyForward

The Documented History Of Malibu, California In todays article, we will discuss the documented history of Malibu, California. Malibu, California is a city located along the coast of Southern California. It is famed for its beautiful beaches & it’s wide array of celebrities. Malibu is located in Los Angeles county, approximately 32.60 miles from Downtown Los Angeles. What is not well known about Malibu, is the fact that Malibu’s beaches are flooded by many different species of marine life. It is not often seen that Malibu offers a unique marine environment compared to other California coastal areas. For example, in Malibu Lagoon State Beach, many wading birds will swim around the lagoon & watch swimmers alike. Not only that, but Malibu is a prime area for Mussel hunting. Malibu has an abundance of Mussels so you may take them & eat them, however there are certain months of the year in which they are poisonous, so make sure to do research as to if they are safe to eat. Malibu is also a prime area to fish off of a pier, as the Malibu Sport Fishing pier is always open & extremely busy. On this pier, a fishing license is not required to fish. The majority of Malibu does require a fishing permit, so make sure to check the areas in which you are fishing. Malibu has a unique, & interesting history spanning the course of 3,000 years. The Chumash were the first people to inhabit the Malibu Coastal Region, & they were the only Native American tribe to inhabit Malibu. In fact, the word “Malibu” is a Chumash word. The Chumash inhabited the area of Malibu to Paso Robles & Morro Bay. Malibu’s largest elevation is currently 105 feet (32.004 meters) in the air, as Malibu is located along the coast, making it rather low laying. The current population of Malibu is surprisingly low, being at the mere number of 10,564 residents. It is 19.90 square miles (51.54076 square kilometers), giving it a population density of 540 residents per square mile (210 residents per square kilometer. It is in the time zone of Pacific Standard Time which covers parts of Mexico, Canada, & the United States. Their current city website, is malibucity.org, & it most likely will not change. In this article we will discuss the documented history of Malibu, California, the aboriginals of Malibu, California, the most destructive natural & man-caused disasters, & finally the economic state of Malibu. With that being said, let us delve into the place where the surf sounds loudly. The Documented History Of Malibu, California Before Colonization History from 2,500 B.C Before Colonization by the Mexicans, the Chumash Native Americans inhabited the area, & owned the land. They have inhabited the land since at minimum 2,500 B.C, which is 4,523 years from this current date. However, some evidence suggests they could have been in Malibu since 7,000 B.C, though this is not confirmed. The Chumash built a village in the place that is now Malibu, & they called this village Humaliwo. Humaliwo is a Chumash word that translates to “where the surf sounds loudly”. The exact place where this village was is on a hill, just across from Malibu Lagoon State Beach. History From The 1500’s In the year 1542, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo led an expedition from Baja California to California. This was the first contact the Spanish had with California. During this time, Cabrillo ventured to Malibu Lagoon to obtain fresh water. Not much else happened in this century for Malibu, as it was not completely colonized by the Spanish yet. After Colonization By The Spanish History From The 1600’s Nothing major happened during this century for the History of Malibu. History From The 1700’s During this time, Malibu became extremely important to the development of the Spanish system of missions. This system, established in 1769, was a system of 21 Catholic outposts founded by the Catholic priests of the Franciscan Order made to evangelize the Native Americans. It was important because the majority of the missions were on the land that Malibu currently resides on. Spanish History From The 1800’s In the year 1804, José Bartholomé Tapia was given a land grant from the Spanish Governor Jose Joaquin de Arrillaga. Malibu was part of this land grant, which was called “Rancho Topanga Malibu Seguit”. The land was used for predominantly Spanish Missions. This makes José Bartholomé Tapia the first historical land owner in Malibu. The Rancho Topanga Malibu Seguit was a Spanish grant consisting of 13,316 acres of Land. This land was in the Santa Monica Mountains, & the coast alongside them. In April of 1822, the land in which California is was made a Mexican territory following Mexicos Independence. All history in the century from beyond this point will be included in the subsection “After Colonization By The Mexicans”. After Colonization By the Mexicans Mexican-Californian History From The 1800’s In the year 1848 after Tapia died, his wife now widow inherited the land. She then sold this home in the same year to grandson in law, Leon Victor Prudhome. Shortly after, on September 9th of 1850, California became the 31st state to be added to the United States of America. All history in the century from beyond this point will be included in the subsection “After Colonization By The United States”. to After Colonization By The United States American-Californian History From The 1800’s In 1857, Prudhome sold the land to an Irishman known as Matthew Keller, or Don Mateo. The United States Surveyor General surveyed the land in 1857 to approve the land grant to Matthew Keller. The Surveyor approved the land to be given to Keller in 1872. After 1871, all real estate deeds are traceable to “The land of Matthew Keller”. In the year 1881 Matthew Keller unfortunately passed away, & his son Henry Keller inherited the land. He held onto this land until 1892, when he sold it to Frederick Hastings Rindge. At this point Frederick Hastings Rindge & May Rindge Became the owners of the land. They were the last private owners of the land, they managed to expand the land grant from 13,330 acres to 17,000 acres. History From The 1900’s When Fredrick unfortunately passed away in 1905, May Rindge took over the preservation of the property & management of the property. This earned her the prestigious & honourable title of “Queen Of Malibu”. She also began the famed “Malibu Potteries” business which made the Malibu tile that is sought after for homes modernly. When May eventually unfortunately passed away, the property was passed through the family to Rhoda Agatha Rindge, who married Merrit Huntley Adamson. The Rindge Family attempted to keep Malibu private property, however their efforts were futile. It was the last piece of land along the coast without a public road running through it in the early 1900’s. In the year 1921 on November the 3rd, after much legal struggle, it was decided that a county road would be built through the property. The Rindge’s built a beach home along Malibu Lagoon in the year 1929, which is still preserved to date, & brings in lots of tourism. In the year 1929, when the Roosevelt Highway, which is modernly the pacific highway, was built, it ended the long period of Malibu’s isolation. With a new public highway through Malibu, it began developing a flourishing economy. This development mainly started when the La Costa area was sold for 6 Million U.S.D in 1928. Malibu Colony was then leased to various movie stars, & famous singers. It then became an exclusive beach, & soon after that it became a popular hideout for Hollywood actors, hosts, singers, & directors. Movie Colony has henceforth been the playground for the business elite, & the Hollywood stars. May Rindge, who was still alive, wanted to live a private life on this land still. She ended up selling all of her land to go lead a private life elsewhere. The area continued to grow, with Hollywood becoming more & more popular along with the Los Angeles Area. On March 28th of 1991, Malibu was officially incorporated into a city. Malibu Currently has 21 miles of coastline. The Aboriginals Of Malibu, California The Chumash Native American Aboriginals The Chumash were a group of Native Americans inhabiting the areas from Malibu all the way to Paso Robles & Morro Bay. They inhabited 3 of the channel islands, those being Santa Rosa Island, Santa Cruz Island, & Santa Miguel Island. They were most concentrated in the Santa Barbara Channel region. At its peak, their population was approximately 25,000. They spoke the Chumashan languages, of which there are 3 predominant ones. There are North Chumash, Central Chumash, & Island Chumash. The Island Chumash was primarily spoken by those on Santa Rosa Island, Santa Cruz Island, & Santa Miguel Island. These languages, are unfortunately classified as extinct & have been since the early 1960’s. They mainly consumed seafood, such as the black abalone, pacific littleneck clam, bent-nosed clam, Olympia oysters, angular unicorn snails, butternut clam & red abalone. They would get these by spear fishing, & by using nets to catch the fish. They also had a primitive kind of fishing rod. Acorns were also often found in their diets, in the form of being ground up & cooked in a soup. They would also feast on the fruits of the laurel sumac tree. They also would use the ocean for transport as they would make dug-out canoes, which no doubt helped them in their expansion to the various channel islands. This also helped them, make trade with other villages & populations of natives. At their peak, they had approximately 150 independent villages. The largest of these villages were located along the mainland coast in Santa Barbara. The smaller villages tended to be located in areas that did not have immediate access to a spring, lake, or ocean. Each village had access to the majority of the resources Southwest California has to offer, because they all traded with each other. In addition to being inventive, they were also extremely successful at basket weaving. They would weave baskets for various purposes such as holding food, or using them to catch animals. They would also make various beads, for jewelry, & to weave into the baskets. They are not on record to have attacked any other neighbouring natives. They all had individual houses in their respective villages, & each village would have a sweat-house. A sweat-house is a house is a place for cleansing. Each individual village would have something like a playground for the children. This playground would have a flat outdoor area used to play games such as Payas, Peon, & Shinny. There would also be other areas in the village used for dancing, because dance was important in the Chumash culture. This ceremonial dance ground would have a high fence of tule mats, as tule mats serve as a nice windbreak. Inside of the sacred dance ground, was a semi circular area in which shamans & preists would perform religious rituals. Little is known about their religion, however they were most certainly polytheistic. They were also extremely skilled at medicine, & using the local herbs & plants to produce medicines. The Most Destructive Natural & Man-Caused Disasters To Ever Affect Malibu Disaster No. 1: The 1996 Calabasas Fire On October 21st of 1996, a major fire broke out in the Calabasas-Malibu area. It raged for 5 days & burned approximately 13,010 acres of land in both Malibu & Calabasas. It damaged approximately 6 structures. The fire was not contained until October 26th of 1996. Thankfully, no fatalities were reported. Disaster No. 2: The 1993 Old Topanga Fire On November 3rd of 1993, a flame sparked in the Malibu area. This fire would go on to mercilessly burn for 10 days. It scorched 18,000 acres of land in the Malibu area. In its path, it left 359 houses in ruin & 3 fatalities. It also burnt Mulholland Highway & the Pacific Coastal Highway. Unfortunately, some parents could not make it back to Malibu in time to get their children, so they were sheltered at the Point Dume Malibu Community Center. The Red Cross sheltered approximately 80 people at the center, 30 of which were school aged children. The flames raged on for 10 more days, until it was contained on November 11th of 1993. The Economic State Of Malibu The economic state of Malibu is stable, however it largely depends on Tourism. The job market in Malibu has increased by 0.7% in the year 2022, & it is predicted to increase by 33.7% over the next decade. The average salary for a person living in Malibu is 95,212$ a year. The Median Household income is 130,432$ a year. Currently, Malibu has an unemployment rate of 10.9%. The average home in Malibu, currently costs $3,326,388. The average rent for a studio apartment in Malibu is 2,295 U.S.D per month, & the average rent for a 2 bedroom apartment is 6,948 U.S.D per month. Directories / Credits “History Of Malibu” Written By Unknown. Published by the Malibu • Pacific Palisades Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.malibu.org/history-of-malibu “Welcome to Malibu” Written By Unknown. Published by All Things Malibu. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.allthingsmalibu.com/city-of-malibu/ “The Story Of Malibu” Written By Thomas W. Doyle, Toni Doyle, Charlotte H. Laubach, Frederick C. May, Judge John J. Merrick, Luanne Pfeifer, Ronald L. Rindge, & Juanita B. Ringer, then edited by Luanne Pfeifer. Published by the Malibu Lagoon Museum. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.malibucity.org/106/History-of-Malibu “Chumash Life” Written By Unknown. Published By The Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.sbnature.org/collections-research/anthropology/chumash-life/ “Calabasas-Malibu Fire Declared Contained” Written By Hugo Martin Published, October 28th 1996 12:00 AM PST. Published by the Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-10-28-me-58721-story.html “Fire burns behind the Rockwell Towers Residence Hall” Taken By Unknown, October 21st-26th 1996. Published by Pepperdine University, Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://pepperdine.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p15730coll27/id/1145/ “20 Years Later: The Old Topanga Fire” Written by 13StarsManager, Published November 6th 2023. Published by the Malibu Times, Retrieved May 11th 2023. https://malibutimes.com/article_bff8ba0a-46b1-11e3-b60c-001a4bcf887a “Economy in Malibu, California” Written by Unknown. Published by Bestplaces.net, & retrieved on May 11th 2023. https://www.bestplaces.net/economy/city/california/malibu “Malibu, CA Rent Prices” Written By Unknown. Published by zumper.com, retrieved on May 11th 2023. https://www.zumper.com/rent-research/malibu-ca Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California Today’s article will be discussing the oceans surrounding Malibu, California. Malibu, California is a city located along the coast of Southern California. It is famed for its beautiful beaches & it’s wide array of celebrities. Malibu is located in Los Angeles county, approximately 32.60 miles from Downtown Los Angeles. What is not well known about Malibu, is the fact that Malibu’s beaches are flooded by many different species of marine life. It is not often seen that Malibu offers a unique marine environment compared to other California coastal areas. For example, in Malibu Lagoon State Beach, many wading birds will swim around the lagoon & watch swimmers alike. Not only that, but Malibu is a prime area for Mussel hunting. Malibu has an abundance of Mussels so you may take them & eat them, however there are certain months of the year in which they are poisonous, so make sure to do research as to if they are safe to eat. Malibu is also a prime area to fish off of a pier, as the Malibu Sport Fishing pier is always open & extremely busy. On this pier, a fishing license is not required to fish. The majority of Malibu does require a fishing permit, so make sure to check the areas in which you are fishing. Additionally, they have a wide array of different marine ecosystems & landscapes. One of the main ones, is the rocky tidal pools & the various oceanic rock formations found along the beaches. These hold various crustaceans & many other species. This will be discussed in further detail in the section titled “The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California”. There are also many salt water marshes with beautiful wading birds that live in the marsh. These are found extremely prominently in Malibu Lagoon. For this reason, among wading bird watchers, makes Malibu extremely popular. Aside from that, Malibu is extremely beautiful for tourists in Los Angeles as it has some of the highest ratings for beaches in Southern California. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, tides, temperatures, marine geography, basic Information of the oceans surrounding Malibu, California, The most prominent ecosystems of the oceans surrounding Malibu, California, the Documented marine flora of Malibu, California, the documented Marine Fauna of Malibu, California, & finally How the oceanic resources of Malibu have been utilized & how it has affected the environment. The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California Unfortunately, the exact salinity of Malibu has never been measured. Since Malibu rests in the Pacific ocean, it has a lesser salinity then the Atlantic. Salt deposits or brine pools have not been proven to be found around the island in higher concentrations then other areas. However, this could change. Since the average salinity of the water in the southwestern Pacific is 35 parts per thousand at any given time, it can be assumed that the salinity level is somewhere around that. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is the way that salinity is currently measured. There is something that could result in a change in the salinity of the coastal waters located along Malibu. This would be the trapping of brackish water in the marshes, which could result in an extremely salty coastline. If brackish water gets stuck in marshes, then it will disrupt the input & output of salt. This could cause a coastline with a high salinity, which will in turn result in the death of certain species. The oceanic temperatures of Malibu can be found on a plethora of websites, however the most user friendly ones are as follows; https://seatemperature.net , https://www.surf-forecast.com , https://seatemperature.info , https://www.seatemperatu.re , & finally, seatemperatures.nethttps://seatemperatures.net . The annual average oceanic temperature in Malibu currently rests at 62° Fahrenheit (16.6667° Celsius). This requires a wetsuit thickness of 2 to 3 & a half millimeters. The tidal charts for Malibu can also be found on a few of those websites. Occasionally, Malibu may receive waves as high as 20.56 feet high. This usually only happens at Malibu Surfrider beach & Zuma Beach though. The waves are often much tamer then that, & reach a length of 5-6 feet on an average day. Oftentimes the oceanic floor along Malibu’s coastline will consist of sand & rock, instead of coral or any other substance. Also there are little to no oceanic mounds around Malibu. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine Miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) around Malibu is currently 2,457.7 feet deep. There are certainly randomly forming currents around Malibu which can be dangerous for swimmers & surfers alike. These currents are called rip currents or riptides, which can be extremely dangerous as they will pull a swimmer out to sea. They can be easily spotted because they are usually full of foamy brownish coloured water. This is due to a lot of sand becoming mixed into the rip current. If you see this in Malibu, do not swim near it or enter the water as you may be pulled under water. This can make is occasionally unsafe for swimmers, however they can be somewhat easy to spot, so just do your research to make sure that there is not a rip current out at sea. Aside from this, Malibu has some extremely beautiful beaches, & experiences a fair amount of tourism. Currently, the best beaches to visit along Malibu are Point Dume, Zuma Beach, Carbon Beach, Malibu Surfrider’s Beach, Malibu Lagoon State Beach, & finally Paradise Cove Beach. Pollution isn’t that large of an issue along Malibu, at least not to the point where it can injure a swimmers health. You are go scuba diving & snorkelling in Malibu, however the visibility may not be very good in certain areas. There unfortunately, are not coral reefs in Malibu at this time, the nearest coral reefs would be farther south. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of The Oceans Surrounding Malibu, California Coastal Rock Pools / Tide Pools Coastal Rock pools are extremely common along the Malibu Coastline. They are commonly found along beaches, & are not often nearby marshland. These ecosystems are not always habitable as during low tide periods. These ecosystems often contain crustaceans & various shellfish. Mussels are found extremely commonly in these ecosystems, specifically in Malibu. These ecosystems line the coastline & are only found along the coastline. These often are the most disturbed ecosystems as humans, because they are the closest to areas active with humans. When going near tide pools it is important to avoid damaging any structures as this could severely affect all of the creatures in said ecosystem. Also, sea urchins are frequently found nestled in this ecosystem so when you if you have to walk through this ecosystem, be careful. Salt Water Marshland This type of ecosystem is extremely common throughout Malibu & its various beaches. One of the main places were this ecosystem is found on Malibu Lagoon State Beach. These ecosystem often has 2-3 feet of seawater & tall seagrass growing out of the water. This ecosystem is often where most wading birds are found as wading birds enjoy shallow areas that their body is able to stick up out of. They will often go into this ecosystem & hunt fish & various crustaceans. Crabs, Mussels, & small fish can be found in this ecosystem along with wading birds. The species of seagrass most prominent in this ecosystem is Zostera Marina. This ecosystem does fluctuate depth depending on the tide, however it can be from 5 to 12 feet (1.524 to 3.6576 meters) deep. The Documented Marine Flora Of Malibu, California There are approximately 2 prominent species of seagrass found along Malibu, these species are known as Zostera Marina (Common eelgrass), & Phyllospadix Scouleri (Scouler’s seagrass). Zostera Marina however, holds a special & significant role compared to Phyllospadix scouleri. One thing that Eelgrass does that surfgrass can’t do as well. is prevent water erosion. Surfgrass can prevent water erosion however eelgrass is better at it, as it can slow water currents. This makes eelgrass extremely important as it prevents new waterways from being created underground. These seagrasses are often found in large patches, & when they die they will wash on shore &, line the beaches. Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass) Zostera Marina is the first species of seagrass found along Malibu’s coast. It is recognizable because it has 1 long stem that is often 1 meter (3.28084 feet) long. The stem is often between 0.5 (0.19685 inches) & 1 centimeter (0.393701 inches) thick. This one is the one most often found on the coast as it grows along muddy & sandy shorelines. This seagrass is also most commonly found in marshes, which is most likely why it is such a popular food among wading birds. It is found from the Alaskan Panhandle to Baja California Sur. Phyllospadix Scouleri (Scoulers Surfgrass) The second species of seagrass is Phyllospadix Scouleri. This species is extremely recognizable because it is vividly green, very flat, & very long. It looks very silky & it grows in large clumps, these clumps are often exposed during low tide & submerged during high tide. These clumps can be approximately 0.5 feet (0.1524 meters) in diameter & as long as 2 feet (0.6096 meters). This species of seagrass is found from the Alaskan Panhandle to Baja California Sur. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Malibu, California Malibu attracts a wide array of different marine creatures due to its strange array ecosystems. It is semi-hard to keep a straight log of all species that live throughout Malibu because the majority of them are highly migratory. Malibu is often attractive for species because it has many different types of mollusks, which helps the food chain survive well. Additionally, Malibu is often used for surfing instead of other swimming recreations like Santa Monica or Avalon beach. This prevents it from becoming very polluted, so more species are able to thrive & more ecosystems are able to be built. Also, Malibu has a lot of seagrass which helps various species of marine reptiles thrive. As far as we know, the salinity of Malibu is not an attractive feature for animals. For the sake of this article, we will not be stating any animals that have not been spotted around Malibu in the least year. There are currently no known endemic species to Malibu. With that being said, the list of all the most prominent species currently found around Malibu is as follows: Phoca Vitulina (Harbour Seal), Mytilus Californianus (California Mussel), Thylacodes Squamigerus (Scaled Worm Snail), Fissurella Volcano (Volcano Keyhole Limpet), Nanavax Inermis (California Aglaja), Leukoma Staminea (Pacific Littleneck Clam), Flabellinopsis Iodenia (Spanish Shawl), Octopus Bimaculoides (Lesser Two Spot Octopus), Lottia Scabea (Rough Limpet), Donax Gouldii (Gould Beanclam), & finally the Bulla Gouldiana (Cloudy Bubble Snail). How The Oceanic Resources Of Malibu Have been Utilized & How It Has Affected The Environment Most oftentimes, The Oceanic resources of Malibu have been utilized for fishing, & tourism. Not much commerical fishing takes place off the coast of Malibu, however plenty of non-commercial fishing does. The most common place to fish that is on the Malibu Coastline is the Malibu Sport Fishing Pier. This pier does not require a license to fish on as of 2023. These sport anglers will often affect the population of California corbina, & Halibut in the region as these are the most common fish to catch year round. The tourism as not affected the marine life in Malibu very badly because the surfers of Malibu are considerate of the ocean creatures. Directories / Credits Bardach, J. E. , Morgan, . Joseph R. and Cotter, . Charles Henry (2023, March 31). Pacific Ocean. Encyclopedia Britannica. https:// www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean “Water Temperature In Malibu by Month”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by SeaTemperature.net. Retrieval Date: June 19th 2023. https://seatemperature.net/current/united-states/malibu-california-united-states-sea-temperature “Rip Currents” Written by Author Eclectice, June 22nd 2018. Published by the Malibu Mako Club. Retrieved April 27th 2023. https://www.malibumakos.com/rip-currents/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of The Gulf Of Venice, Italy This article is the sixth instalment in the Ode To Oceanography Series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map up for analysis, is an antique nautical chart of the Gulf of Venice. The gulf of Venice is approximately 75 miles wide, & is approximately 125 feet deep on average. The map is in wonderful condition, apart from some curling in the upper side of the map. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the Venetian Gulf. The Map Itself This map is in french. The front emblem says “Carte Reduite De Golfe de Venise”, which translates to “Reduced Map Of The Gulf Of Venice”. This map is specifically off the gulf, & all islands or other land areas are left off the map. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in the year 1820, by Captain Gauttier. The map was found by Maps Of Antiquity, & the original owner of the map is unknown. This map was most likely made in france, due to the map being in french. This map has no rapids, or topographical features outlined on the map. Additionally, there are no marine creature areas outlined on the map. The map is extremely proportionally accurate. As far as we are aware the map is not a part of a specific collection, nor does it have a particular name. This map remains uncoloured, most likely for simplicity the map is not centered on any country, island, or light house. It was also not made or used for any militaristic purposes. Due to the time that the map was made, it is hard to say exactly how it was made. In the year 1820, lithography began becoming commercially popular, which makes the chances of it being made by they method more likely. Since we do not know what country this map was made in, we do not know if lithography had become commercially popular in that area yet. Lithography is still the most likely option, but by a slimmer margin. The first technique that will be discussed is the bronze slab technique. In this technique, there are 5 jobs, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, the papermaker, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually there would only be 1-2 plates used, however it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Then after this, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. In the second method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu This months article will be about.. The western pacific island of Espiritu Santo! Espiritu Santo is an island that makes up the country of Vanuatu. It exists in the southwestern pacific ocean. It is incredibly far from land. Many marine animals from this isle migrated from Australia or other surrounding areas. The isle is approximately 3689.68 nautical/marine miles from mainland Vietnam. That is the closest to a continent that is considered “mainland”. It is a mere 998.36 nautical miles from the Australian province of Queensland. It is also approximately 3343.68 nautical miles from the Antarctica. This island is not to be confused with Isla del Espiritu santo which is off the coast of Baja California Sur. It is the largest island that belongs to Vanuatu. It is incredibly biodiverse & has a rich history due to its placement in Polynesia. It’s history spans over 3,500 years. Espiritu Santo is a part of the Sanma province of Vanuatu. It is also apart of the New Hebrides archipelago. It has many islets that jut out of the water around it, a few of which may have broken off from the main isle in the past. Its current largest settlement is known as Luganville. The isle has a current population of 40,000, 10,738 or 26.84500% of which are located in Luganville. Its later history was widely dictated by the British empire due to it being colonized by Britain for over 8 decades. It has had many tribes occupy its lands, a few of which have unfortunately been lost to time. The most namely of these being the Ni-Vanuatu people who still occupy the island. Thankfully, parts of the culture of many of these tribes can be found in the island’s culture in modern times. The isle has served many purposes for many different countries & cultures. The highest elevation on the island is Mount Tabwemasana standing at 6,165 feet in height. The island is best known for its many shipwrecks & plane wrecks off the coast, these areas are common places for snorkelling. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Espiritu Santo as a whole, The known aboriginals of Espiritu santo, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Espiritu Santo, & finally a segment on the Vanuatuan economy. With that being said, let us delve into the historical part of Santo. The Documented History Of Espiritu Santo Before Colonization It is believed that people came over from the Solomon Islands or Papua New Guinea using canoes approximately 3,500-3,000 years ago. They most likely went to the island of Malakula first then arrived on Espiritu Santo. These people were most likely of the Lapita indigenous tribe. This culture were made up of austronesian people. Unfortunately we do not have exact records as to when exactly this was. These people will go on to make up majority of the indigenous tribes on the island. These tribes would make pottery & ceramics. There is also no clear evidence that suggests that there were multiple tribes. The Lapita have a clear ceramic style which if they were there would have been on these fragments. However we cannot confirm whether it was found on the ceramic or not. These ceramic fragments have been found throughout the hilly areas of the island. However majority of these pieces have been destroyed due to the climate of the island. These pieces date back to 1300 B.C. However at first the Lapita were not united. Roymata united them & became their chief. He instituted a peaceful culture & in the following years there were no conflicts or major battles on the isle. Roymata would have lived at the beginning of the 16th or 17th century. The stories of him have been passed down via Oral tradition. These stories have been corroborated by centuries old archeological sites. On these archeological sites paintings of these stories can be found. The majority of the Lapita came from the Solomon islands or Papua New Guinea however some of them may have came from the Philippines or Taiwan. Also, Geological records show a volcanic eruption on the nearby island of Ambrym in approximately 200 A.D. This would have caused the absolute devastation of villages as well as major famine. After Colonization 17th Century In the year of 1606 A.D the Portuguese explorer Pedro Fernández De Quirós discovered the island. He thought that this isle was a great southern continent. This is all that would go on for this century as Europeans would not be returning until 1768. The exact reason for this is unknown however other explorations may be the reason for this. 18th Century In 1768, the Spanish arrived back on the island. This was during the Spanish conquest. Louis Antonie de Bougainville was the leader of the group that rediscovered the archipelago. Bougainville would name these Les Grandes Cyclades. His reasoning for this is somewhat unknown. In 1774, Captain Cook renamed the archipelago of modern Vanuatu “New Hebrides”. This name would last throughout its rule by the United Kingdom & up until it declared independence. 19th Century During the year 1800 a mass exodus of slaves from Oceania to Europe happened. These people were mainly from Australia, Fiji, & New Spain. However a few were from Vanuatu. This labor trade caused a new form of debt bondage to be made. This form was a type of indentured labor known as blackbirding. This practice consisted of laborers being coerced to do usually backbreaking plantation work in extremely inhumane & violating conditions. During this labor trade more than half of Vanuatu’s population were kidnapped off of the island. This severely reduced the indigenous population to the point where modernly there are very few remaining Ni-Vanuatu peoples. After this the majority of the population were Christian European Immigrants. These missionaries would often attempt to convert the locals form their folk religions. Also In this century the Caledonian Company of New Hebrides was founded & incorporated. This influenced many french folk to move to the island. 20th Century In 1906, France & the United Kingdom agreed to govern the islands together in a form of government called the British-French Condominium. This dual governance would be continued until the 1940s when WWII was brought to the islands by the Americans. It was this time when a sense of nationalism among locals grew large enough to challenge this joint form of government. They decided to band together & essentially petition to become independent. This nationalism campaign hit its peak on the 17th of august 1971. This was due to Father Walter Lini & co to found the New Hebrides National Party or the My Land Party. This party still exists at the time of publishing. The Uprising was known as the coconut war or the bow & arrow war. This war was extremely brief & only officially lasted from June 8th of 1980 This war only had a few casualties & was unconventional. This ended with the Declaration of Independence from Vanuatu. The Aboriginals Of Espiritu Santo The Ni-Vanuatu Indigenous Peoples The Ni-Vanuatuan Indigenous Peoples are a restricted group of indigenous people only found throughout Vanuatu. There are approximately 300,000 of them remaining. They originate as some of the first inhabitants on Vanuatu. They are carriers of the long dead Lapita Culture. They have unique clothings, traditions, & music. One of their unique types of clothing is the penis sleeve. These sleeves are called yelau & they will hang down at various lengths depending on the man's status. In some particular cases, the chiefs would have penis sleeves that hung down to their ankles. They also have specialized musical instruments. One of those is a bamboo pipe that is akin to a modern day flute. The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters That Have Affected Espiritu Santo No. 1 Tropical Cyclone Pam Cyclone pam is regarded as the worst natural disaster to ever effect Vanuatu. It was a category 5 tropical cyclone that swept the southern pacific from march 6th to march 20th 2015. It is currently regarded as the 2nd most destructive & intense tropical storm to ever occur in the southern Pacific Ocean. As a result approximately 3,300 were left without homes. There were a total of 16 fatalities as a indirect & direct result of the hurricane. It cost a total of 692 Million dollars from all countries involved. Adjusted for inflation that would be approximately 870,082,331.65 USD, or 870 million USD. The highest wind speed was 175 miles per hour & it was 1 minute sustained. No.2 Tropical Cyclone Harold Cyclone Harold lasted from April 1st through April 11th of 2020. This was a category 5 hurricane that also swept Oceania. It caused 31 confirmed casualties & 22 missing reports. 2 of these casualties were on Vanuatu. The 22 have yet to be confirmed dead. It was a part of the 2019 hurricane season. At its peak the highest winds it produced was 175 miles per hour. In total it caused 123.5 million USD in 2020. Adjusted for inflation that is approximately 142,206,019.06 USD or 142 million USD. No.3 Plane Crash Van Air YJ-RV4 On the 25th of July 1991, a plane crashed carrying 8 passengers & 1 crew member. This plane was run by VanAir. The type of aircraft was a Britten-Normand Islander. It was taking off from Olpoi, Vanuatu & it was headed towards Luganville, Vanuatu. While it was climbing into the air it crashed near the mountains. 7 minutes after takeoff from Olpoi the twin engine aircraft hit tree tops & crashed in a wooded & hilly terrain located few kilometers from the airstrip. The aircraft was utterly destroyed beyond recognition. All occupants were killed immediately upon impact. The reason for this crash was most likely the pilots inexperience flying this low over this type of terrain. The pilot type was a scheduled revenue flight. The Economic State Of Espiritu Santo The economy of Espiritu santo is relatively stable. However due to semi-frequent tropical cyclones, the economy will occasionally be disrupted. These disruptions are mostly temporary. Villages on espiritu santo are mostly self sufficient. As in they grow most of their own foods & raise most of their own animals. Their GDP for 2021 was 0.928 Billion USD. Their GDP per capita is 3,255 USD. Their inflation rate is not very much & is quite tame, staying at 2.863%. Their GDP by sector is 20.7% agriculture, 11.7% manufacturing, & 67.6% services. Their main industries are meat canning, meat & fish freezing, & wood processing. Commercial fishing is also common but it is not often done by the Vanuatuan government. Their property rates for Luganville are 2.644.29 USD for a 1 bedroom apartment in city center & 3,702.00 USD for a 3 bedroom apartment in city Center. As you can see, tourism has caused the housing prices to go up majorly. There was a large disruption in the economy during 2020 as with most other countries. Their current currency is the Vatu. The Vatu is a unique currency that is only accepted in Vanuatu. It is abbreviated as VUV. The exchange rate between VUV & USD is that 1 USD is the equivalent of 117.651 VUV. 1 VUV is equivalent of 0.0084996974 USD. Vanuatu does not have a public stock market at the time of publishing. Their main import partners are China, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, & Japan. Directories / Credits https://www.seal-superyachts.com/vanuatu-tribes-preserved-by-geography/ https://thehavannah.com/history-of-vanuatu https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16426561.amp https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/australia-and-south-pacific/vanuatu/history-and-culture https://www.jstor.org/stable/25168391 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10357717908444661?journalCode=caji19 https://www.royalmarineshistory.com/post/independence-of-the-new-hebrides-coconut-war-with-france https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/vanuatu.htm https://www.baaa-acro.com/crash/crash-britten-norman-bn-2a-6-islander-olpoi-9-killed https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-relief-news-stories/2015-vanuatu-cyclone-pam-facts https://reliefweb.int/attachments/fbe66a56-8cce-3f72-add7-5dd20dc96c05/OCHA_VUT_TCPam_Sitrep1_20150310.pdf https://www.traveltill.com/destination/Vanuatu/Espiritu-Santo/economy.php https://www.numbeo.com/property-investment/in/Luganville-Vanuatu?displayCurrency=USD Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu This months article will be about.. The western pacific island of Espiritu Santo! Espiritu Santo is an island that makes up the country of Vanuatu. It exists in the southwestern pacific ocean. It is incredibly far from land. Many marine animals from this isle migrated from Australia or other surrounding areas. The isle is approximately 3689.68 from mainland Vietnam. That is the closest to a continent that is considered “mainland”. It is a mere 998.36 miles from the Australian province of Queensland. It is also approximately 3343.68 nautical miles from the Antarctica. Vanuatu is extremely biodiverse due to it being in the Indo-western region. The island exists in the Pacific Ocean. One of the most infamous of these flashy creatures is the Greater Blue-ringed octopus. This is a species of venomous octopus which lives off the island. It is incredibly well known for its beautiful beaches. It is a popular destination for snorkelling & scuba diving enthusiasts. A factor as to why this is, is that they have beautiful shallow coral reefs that line most of the island. It has a diverse set of marine flora as well. This sets up a beautiful ecological complex for many species. This is why many species migrate to Espiritu Santo. The result of all of this is a beautiful, vibrant, biodynamic ecosystem. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the island of Santo. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Espiritu Santo Since Espiritu santo is in the Pacific ocean it has a lesser salinity level then say the Atlantic Ocean. Salt deposits are not common around the island. The exact salinity level of the water surrounding the island has not officially been released. However, since the average salinity of the water in the southwestern Pacific is 35 parts per thousand at any given time, it can be assumed that the salinity level is somewhere around that. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. There are also No current on going factors that would affect the salinity levels in such a harsh way that the salinity would change. It is also unknown the deepest oceanic point around the island. The water temperature for the oceans around the island can be found on a variety of websites. The most trustworthy are https://www.watertemperature.org , https://www.weather-atlas.com , & https://weather-and-climate.com . The tidal charts can be found on these following websites; https://www.tide-forecast , http://www.tidetablechart.com , & https://tidesnear.me . The tides as far as can be seen are not usually over 5.4 feet (1.64592 meters) high. There are not many currents around the island & they are not in danger of forming without warning. The riptide is not dangerous & there is often not high surf. However just because the seas are usually calm does not mean it is not heavily advised to listen to the coastal guard of Vanuatu. Pollution is not bad enough to cause any danger to humans. Many recreational activities such as swimming, surfing, scuba diving, & snorkelling take place here. There are a total of 7 marine protected areas of Vanuatu. These marine protected zones collectively make up 0.008% of Vanuatu’s national waters. As for marine geography the island usually does not have very many sea mounts due to how shallow the water is. The bottom of the oceanic floor in these areas are very often sand, coral, rock, or hardened mud. The island also has approximately 200.53 Nautical/Marine miles (230.811834 miles or 371.45564 kilometers) of coastline. The Main Marine Ecosystems Of Espiritu Santo Coral Reefed Areas Coral reefs are the most infamous of the ecosystems of Vanuatu. The coral reefs nearby are usually within 30 feet of surface level & are fringing rather then barrier. They are absolutely beautiful & attract millions of dollars in tourism each year. These areas serve as a home, a habitat, & a hunting ground for many creatures. Not to mention that the coral itself is alive. There are currently 296 coral species that have been identified. 24 of these species have not been recorded as being found in the great barrier reef. This means that these species have migrated from elsewhere or are completely unique to the region. These coral reefs however, are often damaged or in poor condition. This is mainly due to human activity & invasive species being introduced. Seagrass Beds There is no specific place that these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. However they are usually found along the coast or in tidal areas. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually smaller animals are found here, this makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses & most tropical & subtropical fish species give birth. It consists mostly of seagrass, clumps of mud, & the occasional rock formation. This is also can area where most animals can hide. So it is extremely important when venturing through areas like this to watch out for Blue-Ringed Octopi. The Documented Marine Flora Of The Espiritu Santo The Marine Flora of Espiritu santo is increasingly becoming more diverse & more threatened. Many species are being threatened due to not enough protection & ocean acidification. They have approximately 2 species of seagrass however the exact species have not been released to the public domain at the time of publication. Coral will not be counted in this section due to it technically classifying as an animal. Micro-algae & species of the like will also not be discussed. During an expedition in 2006 around the island, many species of green algae were discovered to be in the water. Approximately 276 species of green algae were described to be in the area. The basic reason for this is due to great climate & proteins existing the water in a higher density then elsewhere. This goes for most of Oceania. There are no known endemic marine flora species however that does not mean that they do not exist. There are no kelp species that are found around the island, the closest species is around Southern Australia. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Espiritu Santo Marine fauna around this isle is absolutely stunning & biodiverse. Many species migrate to this area due to the great climate, nutrients, abundance of food, & the environmental stability. These species may migrate to Australia & back for mating cycles or to built colonies outwards. Unfortunately, many of these species happen to be endangered. The most notable example of this is the Dugong Dugon (Dugong) & the Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle). However there are many government & private conservation efforts & projects that are currently taking place. The most prominent marine fauna species that live around Espiritu santo are as follows: Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle), Dungong Dugon (Dugong), various species of whales, 35 coral mushroom species, Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Mangrove red snapper), Caranax Ignobilis (Giant Trevally), Coryphaena Hippurus (Common Dolphinfish), & Gymnosarda Unicolor (dogtooth tuna). There are thousands of small tropical fish species that can be seen in the shallow coral reefs. However since there are so very many of these species we will not be discussing them. How The Marine Resources Of Espiritu Santo Were Utilized The Marine Resources of this island were most often utilized for commercial fishing. This of course, harmed the wildlife severely. This proves once again that most often humans will negatively influence the wildlife. However, this is not always purposeful. Another way that the marine resources are currently used is for ecological tourism purposes. They are very beautiful & are surreal to look at. This makes eco-tourism a large part of the tourism sector. Directories / Credits https://www.aims.gov.au/docs/projectnet/blue-ringed-octopus.html https://www.wabe.org/tv-episodes/coral-reefs-of-vanuatu-zojpje/ https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f4e97a57-e8b9-4426-a32c-a8edf2fbba45/content https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239594830_LIST_OF_ALGAE_FROM_THE_SANTO_2006_EXPEDITION_VANUATU https://www.researchgate.net/figure/2-Global-distribution-of-forest-forming-kelps-Steneck-et-al-2002-open-ocean-low_fig1_338680185 https://www.animalinfo.org/country/vanuatu.htm https://www.grida.no/resources/3555 http://www.resort-vanuatu.com/fish_species_in_vanuatu.htm Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

An Interview With Emily Johns  A writer of ours recently conducted an online interview with an aquaculture foreman, Emily. Emily Johns is the foreman for an aquaculture farm in Tomales Bay, which is the Hog Island Oyster Company. Hog Island Oyster Company is an oyster company that is located in Northern California. Beginning in 1983, the farm has been bringing oysters to Californians for generations. They currently grow 4 species of oysters, along with Manila Clams. These species of oysters are the Atlantic oyster, Pacific oyster, Olympia oyster, & Kumamoto oyster. Their main location is in Tomales Bay, but their hatchery location is in Humboldt County. This hatchery location breeds the oysters & raises them from an egg. After the egg is made, it is raised in Humboldt County until it is an acceptable size for shipment. Once they are large enough, they are shipped to the main farm in Tomales Bay. These oysters will stay in the bay for between 6 months & 2 years, depending on the species. She began working with the Hog Island Oyster Company in late August & attended an aquaculture conference along with other members of the company. This is where our writer met her. In this interview, our writer asked her a total of 25 questions. In this article, we will discuss the contents of our interview with her. Our questions can be broken down into three sections: questions about her career path, questions about the Hog Island Oyster Company farm, & questions related to the biological process of raising an oyster. With that being said, let us delve into an interview with Emily Johns. The Contents Of The Interview  Ms. Johns always had a passion for aquaculture, kelp, & oceanic life in general. Ms. Johns began her career in aquaculture in Maine, with Mook Sea Farm, farming oysters. She came to Maine with hopes of going into seaweed farming, but this was unattainable at the time. She continued at this farm for a few years, until she decided she wanted a change of pace. Johns began emailing aquaculture farms up & down the California coast until the Hog Island Oyster Company responded to her. Johns interviewed & got a position as the foreman of the farm. She began in August of 2023, & has since added many new insights to the team. Ms. Johns is the foreman on the Hog Island Oyster Company’s aquaculture farm. What this job entails is that she works between the management & administration side & the farming side. She does both administrative work & the farming of the oysters. Ms. Johns doesn’t own any aquariums, as she is not an aquaculture hobbyist. On the farm, the oysters are grown primarily in mesh bags, directly in the bay. 200 oysters are usually grown in 1 individual bag, though it can fluctuate. By growing the oysters directly in the bay, the oysters naturally clean the water, & they are able to get a more balanced diet. An adult oyster is able to clean up to 50 gallons of water per day. The number of oysters that are produced by the farm fluctuates every year, so unfortunately, we are unable to speak on that. As said in the introduction, the species of oysters produced on the farm are the Atlantic Oyster, Kumamoto Oyster, Olympia Oyster, & Pacific Oyster. Additionally, they currently produce Manila Clams. In the past, they have produced a few other species of marine bivalve, & they may do so again in the future. Since the oysters eat algae directly from the bay, they do not have any kind of feed. The farm has a hatchery facility in Humboldt County, where the oysters are bred. After the eggs have been hatched, they are shipped to the main farm. On average, the oysters have a 50% mortality rate. This rate can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as the OsHV-1 virus in the bay. Across the 2 farm facilities, there are 7 different life stages. These 7 life stages are the egg, trochophore larva, D-stage larva, veliger larva, pediveliger, spat, & adult. From egg to pediveliger, they are pelagic, meaning they live in the open ocean. After Pediveliger, they become benthic & begin living on the ocean floor. The egg is the first of the life stages & lasts for approximately 6 hours. After that, they will go into the trochophore stage, in which they will now be able to displace water to bring food closer. At 24 hours of life, they will enter the D-stage larva. In this larval stage, they will gain a velum, which is used to help in locomotion. At 48 hours of life, it will go into the veliger stage. In the veliger stage, the shell & hinge of the shell will begin to form, so that the adult oyster is able to open & close its valves. It will stay in this stage until 2 weeks of life when it will go into the Pediveliger stage of life. During this stage, they will fall to the ocean floor, in order to find a suitable place to metamorphose. Once it has found a place that is deemed acceptable, it will attach itself to the rocks & evolve into a spat. It will stay in the spat stage for a few months to 2 years when it will then become an adult oyster. Prior to becoming adults, the oysters will be measured in millimeters. Once they become full-fledged adults, they will be measured in inches. The minimum acceptable marketable size for an oyster is currently 2.5 inches. The Hog Island Oyster Company has multiple locations around California, where interested customers are able to purchase oysters on the half shell. Additionally, they have a small shop on their farm where customers are able to just purchase large bags of oysters & shuck them on their own.  Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Map Of The Lesser Antilles, & Guyana This article is the fifth instalment in the Ode to Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map up for analysis, is an antique map of the Caribbean Isles. It encompasses approximately 2/3rds of the Caribbean Sea. The map is in magnificent condition, aside from some yellow discolouration in the upper right corner, & the upper edges being curled from moisture. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the waters of the Caribbean. The Map Itself: Since the map is in English, there is no need to translate it, because this is the English version of our newsletter. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in 1807, by Irish Mapmaker, Robert Blachford. This map was found by the Maps of Antiquity company, & the original owner beyond that is unknown. It is unknown which country this was made in, as at the time, a multitude of European countries occupied the Caribbean, making it hard to determine which which is the one that it originated from. This area encompasses not only the lesser Antilles, but it also encompasses Guyana & North Venezuela. This map has no sea creature migration zones outlined on it. The map is extremely accurate, & shows the majority of the Caribbean islands, even the minor outlying islands. This map has no official name or cartographic collection that it is a part of. This map has very few topographical features, aside from The Orinoco River, & a few other Rivers. This map is uncoloured, for reasons unknown. It was not made for, or most likely used for Militaristic purposes. The map is centered on the Caribbean Sea, but not any specific country in it. This map has no rapids, underwater canyons, or things of such a nature. Since Lithography only became commercially popular in the 1820’s, & the map was made in 1807, lithography had not become commercially popular yet. Lithography was invented in 1798, so there is still a chance that it was made using that technique. The first technique it could have been made with was lithographic printing. In this method the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. The second method possible, is the engraving Method. This method was not to traditional at the time, though it could be done, it was not as common. In this technique, there are 5 jobs, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, the papermaker, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually there would only be 1-2 plates used, however it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Then after this, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. The first technique is more likely, as it could be done more easily & in higher quality. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa