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The Documented History Of Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu This months article will be about.. The western pacific island of Espiritu Santo! Espiritu Santo is an island that makes up the country of Vanuatu. It exists in the southwestern pacific ocean. It is incredibly far from land. Many marine animals from this isle migrated from Australia or other surrounding areas. The isle is approximately 3689.68 nautical/marine miles from mainland Vietnam. That is the closest to a continent that is considered “mainland”. It is a mere 998.36 nautical miles from the Australian province of Queensland. It is also approximately 3343.68 nautical miles from the Antarctica. This island is not to be confused with Isla del Espiritu santo which is off the coast of Baja California Sur. It is the largest island that belongs to Vanuatu. It is incredibly biodiverse & has a rich history due to its placement in Polynesia. It’s history spans over 3,500 years. Espiritu Santo is a part of the Sanma province of Vanuatu. It is also apart of the New Hebrides archipelago. It has many islets that jut out of the water around it, a few of which may have broken off from the main isle in the past. Its current largest settlement is known as Luganville. The isle has a current population of 40,000, 10,738 or 26.84500% of which are located in Luganville. Its later history was widely dictated by the British empire due to it being colonized by Britain for over 8 decades. It has had many tribes occupy its lands, a few of which have unfortunately been lost to time. The most namely of these being the Ni-Vanuatu people who still occupy the island. Thankfully, parts of the culture of many of these tribes can be found in the island’s culture in modern times. The isle has served many purposes for many different countries & cultures. The highest elevation on the island is Mount Tabwemasana standing at 6,165 feet in height. The island is best known for its many shipwrecks & plane wrecks off the coast, these areas are common places for snorkelling. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Espiritu Santo as a whole, The known aboriginals of Espiritu santo, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Espiritu Santo, & finally a segment on the Vanuatuan economy. With that being said, let us delve into the historical part of Santo. The Documented History Of Espiritu Santo Before Colonization It is believed that people came over from the Solomon Islands or Papua New Guinea using canoes approximately 3,500-3,000 years ago. They most likely went to the island of Malakula first then arrived on Espiritu Santo. These people were most likely of the Lapita indigenous tribe. This culture were made up of austronesian people. Unfortunately we do not have exact records as to when exactly this was. These people will go on to make up majority of the indigenous tribes on the island. These tribes would make pottery & ceramics. There is also no clear evidence that suggests that there were multiple tribes. The Lapita have a clear ceramic style which if they were there would have been on these fragments. However we cannot confirm whether it was found on the ceramic or not. These ceramic fragments have been found throughout the hilly areas of the island. However majority of these pieces have been destroyed due to the climate of the island. These pieces date back to 1300 B.C. However at first the Lapita were not united. Roymata united them & became their chief. He instituted a peaceful culture & in the following years there were no conflicts or major battles on the isle. Roymata would have lived at the beginning of the 16th or 17th century. The stories of him have been passed down via Oral tradition. These stories have been corroborated by centuries old archeological sites. On these archeological sites paintings of these stories can be found. The majority of the Lapita came from the Solomon islands or Papua New Guinea however some of them may have came from the Philippines or Taiwan. Also, Geological records show a volcanic eruption on the nearby island of Ambrym in approximately 200 A.D. This would have caused the absolute devastation of villages as well as major famine. After Colonization 17th Century In the year of 1606 A.D the Portuguese explorer Pedro Fernández De Quirós discovered the island. He thought that this isle was a great southern continent. This is all that would go on for this century as Europeans would not be returning until 1768. The exact reason for this is unknown however other explorations may be the reason for this. 18th Century In 1768, the Spanish arrived back on the island. This was during the Spanish conquest. Louis Antonie de Bougainville was the leader of the group that rediscovered the archipelago. Bougainville would name these Les Grandes Cyclades. His reasoning for this is somewhat unknown. In 1774, Captain Cook renamed the archipelago of modern Vanuatu “New Hebrides”. This name would last throughout its rule by the United Kingdom & up until it declared independence. 19th Century During the year 1800 a mass exodus of slaves from Oceania to Europe happened. These people were mainly from Australia, Fiji, & New Spain. However a few were from Vanuatu. This labor trade caused a new form of debt bondage to be made. This form was a type of indentured labor known as blackbirding. This practice consisted of laborers being coerced to do usually backbreaking plantation work in extremely inhumane & violating conditions. During this labor trade more than half of Vanuatu’s population were kidnapped off of the island. This severely reduced the indigenous population to the point where modernly there are very few remaining Ni-Vanuatu peoples. After this the majority of the population were Christian European Immigrants. These missionaries would often attempt to convert the locals form their folk religions. Also In this century the Caledonian Company of New Hebrides was founded & incorporated. This influenced many french folk to move to the island. 20th Century In 1906, France & the United Kingdom agreed to govern the islands together in a form of government called the British-French Condominium. This dual governance would be continued until the 1940s when WWII was brought to the islands by the Americans. It was this time when a sense of nationalism among locals grew large enough to challenge this joint form of government. They decided to band together & essentially petition to become independent. This nationalism campaign hit its peak on the 17th of august 1971. This was due to Father Walter Lini & co to found the New Hebrides National Party or the My Land Party. This party still exists at the time of publishing. The Uprising was known as the coconut war or the bow & arrow war. This war was extremely brief & only officially lasted from June 8th of 1980 This war only had a few casualties & was unconventional. This ended with the Declaration of Independence from Vanuatu. The Aboriginals Of Espiritu Santo The Ni-Vanuatu Indigenous Peoples The Ni-Vanuatuan Indigenous Peoples are a restricted group of indigenous people only found throughout Vanuatu. There are approximately 300,000 of them remaining. They originate as some of the first inhabitants on Vanuatu. They are carriers of the long dead Lapita Culture. They have unique clothings, traditions, & music. One of their unique types of clothing is the penis sleeve. These sleeves are called yelau & they will hang down at various lengths depending on the man's status. In some particular cases, the chiefs would have penis sleeves that hung down to their ankles. They also have specialized musical instruments. One of those is a bamboo pipe that is akin to a modern day flute. The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters That Have Affected Espiritu Santo No. 1 Tropical Cyclone Pam Cyclone pam is regarded as the worst natural disaster to ever effect Vanuatu. It was a category 5 tropical cyclone that swept the southern pacific from march 6th to march 20th 2015. It is currently regarded as the 2nd most destructive & intense tropical storm to ever occur in the southern Pacific Ocean. As a result approximately 3,300 were left without homes. There were a total of 16 fatalities as a indirect & direct result of the hurricane. It cost a total of 692 Million dollars from all countries involved. Adjusted for inflation that would be approximately 870,082,331.65 USD, or 870 million USD. The highest wind speed was 175 miles per hour & it was 1 minute sustained. No.2 Tropical Cyclone Harold Cyclone Harold lasted from April 1st through April 11th of 2020. This was a category 5 hurricane that also swept Oceania. It caused 31 confirmed casualties & 22 missing reports. 2 of these casualties were on Vanuatu. The 22 have yet to be confirmed dead. It was a part of the 2019 hurricane season. At its peak the highest winds it produced was 175 miles per hour. In total it caused 123.5 million USD in 2020. Adjusted for inflation that is approximately 142,206,019.06 USD or 142 million USD. No.3 Plane Crash Van Air YJ-RV4 On the 25th of July 1991, a plane crashed carrying 8 passengers & 1 crew member. This plane was run by VanAir. The type of aircraft was a Britten-Normand Islander. It was taking off from Olpoi, Vanuatu & it was headed towards Luganville, Vanuatu. While it was climbing into the air it crashed near the mountains. 7 minutes after takeoff from Olpoi the twin engine aircraft hit tree tops & crashed in a wooded & hilly terrain located few kilometers from the airstrip. The aircraft was utterly destroyed beyond recognition. All occupants were killed immediately upon impact. The reason for this crash was most likely the pilots inexperience flying this low over this type of terrain. The pilot type was a scheduled revenue flight. The Economic State Of Espiritu Santo The economy of Espiritu santo is relatively stable. However due to semi-frequent tropical cyclones, the economy will occasionally be disrupted. These disruptions are mostly temporary. Villages on espiritu santo are mostly self sufficient. As in they grow most of their own foods & raise most of their own animals. Their GDP for 2021 was 0.928 Billion USD. Their GDP per capita is 3,255 USD. Their inflation rate is not very much & is quite tame, staying at 2.863%. Their GDP by sector is 20.7% agriculture, 11.7% manufacturing, & 67.6% services. Their main industries are meat canning, meat & fish freezing, & wood processing. Commercial fishing is also common but it is not often done by the Vanuatuan government. Their property rates for Luganville are 2.644.29 USD for a 1 bedroom apartment in city center & 3,702.00 USD for a 3 bedroom apartment in city Center. As you can see, tourism has caused the housing prices to go up majorly. There was a large disruption in the economy during 2020 as with most other countries. Their current currency is the Vatu. The Vatu is a unique currency that is only accepted in Vanuatu. It is abbreviated as VUV. The exchange rate between VUV & USD is that 1 USD is the equivalent of 117.651 VUV. 1 VUV is equivalent of 0.0084996974 USD. Vanuatu does not have a public stock market at the time of publishing. Their main import partners are China, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, & Japan. Directories / Credits https://www.seal-superyachts.com/vanuatu-tribes-preserved-by-geography/ https://thehavannah.com/history-of-vanuatu https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16426561.amp https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/australia-and-south-pacific/vanuatu/history-and-culture https://www.jstor.org/stable/25168391 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10357717908444661?journalCode=caji19 https://www.royalmarineshistory.com/post/independence-of-the-new-hebrides-coconut-war-with-france https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/vanuatu.htm https://www.baaa-acro.com/crash/crash-britten-norman-bn-2a-6-islander-olpoi-9-killed https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-relief-news-stories/2015-vanuatu-cyclone-pam-facts https://reliefweb.int/attachments/fbe66a56-8cce-3f72-add7-5dd20dc96c05/OCHA_VUT_TCPam_Sitrep1_20150310.pdf https://www.traveltill.com/destination/Vanuatu/Espiritu-Santo/economy.php https://www.numbeo.com/property-investment/in/Luganville-Vanuatu?displayCurrency=USD Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu This months article will be about.. The western pacific island of Espiritu Santo! Espiritu Santo is an island that makes up the country of Vanuatu. It exists in the southwestern pacific ocean. It is incredibly far from land. Many marine animals from this isle migrated from Australia or other surrounding areas. The isle is approximately 3689.68 from mainland Vietnam. That is the closest to a continent that is considered “mainland”. It is a mere 998.36 miles from the Australian province of Queensland. It is also approximately 3343.68 nautical miles from the Antarctica. Vanuatu is extremely biodiverse due to it being in the Indo-western region. The island exists in the Pacific Ocean. One of the most infamous of these flashy creatures is the Greater Blue-ringed octopus. This is a species of venomous octopus which lives off the island. It is incredibly well known for its beautiful beaches. It is a popular destination for snorkelling & scuba diving enthusiasts. A factor as to why this is, is that they have beautiful shallow coral reefs that line most of the island. It has a diverse set of marine flora as well. This sets up a beautiful ecological complex for many species. This is why many species migrate to Espiritu Santo. The result of all of this is a beautiful, vibrant, biodynamic ecosystem. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the island of Santo. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Espiritu Santo Since Espiritu santo is in the Pacific ocean it has a lesser salinity level then say the Atlantic Ocean. Salt deposits are not common around the island. The exact salinity level of the water surrounding the island has not officially been released. However, since the average salinity of the water in the southwestern Pacific is 35 parts per thousand at any given time, it can be assumed that the salinity level is somewhere around that. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. There are also No current on going factors that would affect the salinity levels in such a harsh way that the salinity would change. It is also unknown the deepest oceanic point around the island. The water temperature for the oceans around the island can be found on a variety of websites. The most trustworthy are https://www.watertemperature.org , https://www.weather-atlas.com , & https://weather-and-climate.com . The tidal charts can be found on these following websites; https://www.tide-forecast , http://www.tidetablechart.com , & https://tidesnear.me . The tides as far as can be seen are not usually over 5.4 feet (1.64592 meters) high. There are not many currents around the island & they are not in danger of forming without warning. The riptide is not dangerous & there is often not high surf. However just because the seas are usually calm does not mean it is not heavily advised to listen to the coastal guard of Vanuatu. Pollution is not bad enough to cause any danger to humans. Many recreational activities such as swimming, surfing, scuba diving, & snorkelling take place here. There are a total of 7 marine protected areas of Vanuatu. These marine protected zones collectively make up 0.008% of Vanuatu’s national waters. As for marine geography the island usually does not have very many sea mounts due to how shallow the water is. The bottom of the oceanic floor in these areas are very often sand, coral, rock, or hardened mud. The island also has approximately 200.53 Nautical/Marine miles (230.811834 miles or 371.45564 kilometers) of coastline. The Main Marine Ecosystems Of Espiritu Santo Coral Reefed Areas Coral reefs are the most infamous of the ecosystems of Vanuatu. The coral reefs nearby are usually within 30 feet of surface level & are fringing rather then barrier. They are absolutely beautiful & attract millions of dollars in tourism each year. These areas serve as a home, a habitat, & a hunting ground for many creatures. Not to mention that the coral itself is alive. There are currently 296 coral species that have been identified. 24 of these species have not been recorded as being found in the great barrier reef. This means that these species have migrated from elsewhere or are completely unique to the region. These coral reefs however, are often damaged or in poor condition. This is mainly due to human activity & invasive species being introduced. Seagrass Beds There is no specific place that these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. However they are usually found along the coast or in tidal areas. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually smaller animals are found here, this makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses & most tropical & subtropical fish species give birth. It consists mostly of seagrass, clumps of mud, & the occasional rock formation. This is also can area where most animals can hide. So it is extremely important when venturing through areas like this to watch out for Blue-Ringed Octopi. The Documented Marine Flora Of The Espiritu Santo The Marine Flora of Espiritu santo is increasingly becoming more diverse & more threatened. Many species are being threatened due to not enough protection & ocean acidification. They have approximately 2 species of seagrass however the exact species have not been released to the public domain at the time of publication. Coral will not be counted in this section due to it technically classifying as an animal. Micro-algae & species of the like will also not be discussed. During an expedition in 2006 around the island, many species of green algae were discovered to be in the water. Approximately 276 species of green algae were described to be in the area. The basic reason for this is due to great climate & proteins existing the water in a higher density then elsewhere. This goes for most of Oceania. There are no known endemic marine flora species however that does not mean that they do not exist. There are no kelp species that are found around the island, the closest species is around Southern Australia. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Espiritu Santo Marine fauna around this isle is absolutely stunning & biodiverse. Many species migrate to this area due to the great climate, nutrients, abundance of food, & the environmental stability. These species may migrate to Australia & back for mating cycles or to built colonies outwards. Unfortunately, many of these species happen to be endangered. The most notable example of this is the Dugong Dugon (Dugong) & the Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle). However there are many government & private conservation efforts & projects that are currently taking place. The most prominent marine fauna species that live around Espiritu santo are as follows: Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle), Dungong Dugon (Dugong), various species of whales, 35 coral mushroom species, Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Mangrove red snapper), Caranax Ignobilis (Giant Trevally), Coryphaena Hippurus (Common Dolphinfish), & Gymnosarda Unicolor (dogtooth tuna). There are thousands of small tropical fish species that can be seen in the shallow coral reefs. However since there are so very many of these species we will not be discussing them. How The Marine Resources Of Espiritu Santo Were Utilized The Marine Resources of this island were most often utilized for commercial fishing. This of course, harmed the wildlife severely. This proves once again that most often humans will negatively influence the wildlife. However, this is not always purposeful. Another way that the marine resources are currently used is for ecological tourism purposes. They are very beautiful & are surreal to look at. This makes eco-tourism a large part of the tourism sector. Directories / Credits https://www.aims.gov.au/docs/projectnet/blue-ringed-octopus.html https://www.wabe.org/tv-episodes/coral-reefs-of-vanuatu-zojpje/ https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f4e97a57-e8b9-4426-a32c-a8edf2fbba45/content https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239594830_LIST_OF_ALGAE_FROM_THE_SANTO_2006_EXPEDITION_VANUATU https://www.researchgate.net/figure/2-Global-distribution-of-forest-forming-kelps-Steneck-et-al-2002-open-ocean-low_fig1_338680185 https://www.animalinfo.org/country/vanuatu.htm https://www.grida.no/resources/3555 http://www.resort-vanuatu.com/fish_species_in_vanuatu.htm Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

An Interview With Emily Johns  A writer of ours recently conducted an online interview with an aquaculture foreman, Emily. Emily Johns is the foreman for an aquaculture farm in Tomales Bay, which is the Hog Island Oyster Company. Hog Island Oyster Company is an oyster company that is located in Northern California. Beginning in 1983, the farm has been bringing oysters to Californians for generations. They currently grow 4 species of oysters, along with Manila Clams. These species of oysters are the Atlantic oyster, Pacific oyster, Olympia oyster, & Kumamoto oyster. Their main location is in Tomales Bay, but their hatchery location is in Humboldt County. This hatchery location breeds the oysters & raises them from an egg. After the egg is made, it is raised in Humboldt County until it is an acceptable size for shipment. Once they are large enough, they are shipped to the main farm in Tomales Bay. These oysters will stay in the bay for between 6 months & 2 years, depending on the species. She began working with the Hog Island Oyster Company in late August & attended an aquaculture conference along with other members of the company. This is where our writer met her. In this interview, our writer asked her a total of 25 questions. In this article, we will discuss the contents of our interview with her. Our questions can be broken down into three sections: questions about her career path, questions about the Hog Island Oyster Company farm, & questions related to the biological process of raising an oyster. With that being said, let us delve into an interview with Emily Johns. The Contents Of The Interview  Ms. Johns always had a passion for aquaculture, kelp, & oceanic life in general. Ms. Johns began her career in aquaculture in Maine, with Mook Sea Farm, farming oysters. She came to Maine with hopes of going into seaweed farming, but this was unattainable at the time. She continued at this farm for a few years, until she decided she wanted a change of pace. Johns began emailing aquaculture farms up & down the California coast until the Hog Island Oyster Company responded to her. Johns interviewed & got a position as the foreman of the farm. She began in August of 2023, & has since added many new insights to the team. Ms. Johns is the foreman on the Hog Island Oyster Company’s aquaculture farm. What this job entails is that she works between the management & administration side & the farming side. She does both administrative work & the farming of the oysters. Ms. Johns doesn’t own any aquariums, as she is not an aquaculture hobbyist. On the farm, the oysters are grown primarily in mesh bags, directly in the bay. 200 oysters are usually grown in 1 individual bag, though it can fluctuate. By growing the oysters directly in the bay, the oysters naturally clean the water, & they are able to get a more balanced diet. An adult oyster is able to clean up to 50 gallons of water per day. The number of oysters that are produced by the farm fluctuates every year, so unfortunately, we are unable to speak on that. As said in the introduction, the species of oysters produced on the farm are the Atlantic Oyster, Kumamoto Oyster, Olympia Oyster, & Pacific Oyster. Additionally, they currently produce Manila Clams. In the past, they have produced a few other species of marine bivalve, & they may do so again in the future. Since the oysters eat algae directly from the bay, they do not have any kind of feed. The farm has a hatchery facility in Humboldt County, where the oysters are bred. After the eggs have been hatched, they are shipped to the main farm. On average, the oysters have a 50% mortality rate. This rate can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as the OsHV-1 virus in the bay. Across the 2 farm facilities, there are 7 different life stages. These 7 life stages are the egg, trochophore larva, D-stage larva, veliger larva, pediveliger, spat, & adult. From egg to pediveliger, they are pelagic, meaning they live in the open ocean. After Pediveliger, they become benthic & begin living on the ocean floor. The egg is the first of the life stages & lasts for approximately 6 hours. After that, they will go into the trochophore stage, in which they will now be able to displace water to bring food closer. At 24 hours of life, they will enter the D-stage larva. In this larval stage, they will gain a velum, which is used to help in locomotion. At 48 hours of life, it will go into the veliger stage. In the veliger stage, the shell & hinge of the shell will begin to form, so that the adult oyster is able to open & close its valves. It will stay in this stage until 2 weeks of life when it will go into the Pediveliger stage of life. During this stage, they will fall to the ocean floor, in order to find a suitable place to metamorphose. Once it has found a place that is deemed acceptable, it will attach itself to the rocks & evolve into a spat. It will stay in the spat stage for a few months to 2 years when it will then become an adult oyster. Prior to becoming adults, the oysters will be measured in millimeters. Once they become full-fledged adults, they will be measured in inches. The minimum acceptable marketable size for an oyster is currently 2.5 inches. The Hog Island Oyster Company has multiple locations around California, where interested customers are able to purchase oysters on the half shell. Additionally, they have a small shop on their farm where customers are able to just purchase large bags of oysters & shuck them on their own.  Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Map Of The Lesser Antilles, & Guyana This article is the fifth instalment in the Ode to Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map up for analysis, is an antique map of the Caribbean Isles. It encompasses approximately 2/3rds of the Caribbean Sea. The map is in magnificent condition, aside from some yellow discolouration in the upper right corner, & the upper edges being curled from moisture. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the waters of the Caribbean. The Map Itself: Since the map is in English, there is no need to translate it, because this is the English version of our newsletter. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in 1807, by Irish Mapmaker, Robert Blachford. This map was found by the Maps of Antiquity company, & the original owner beyond that is unknown. It is unknown which country this was made in, as at the time, a multitude of European countries occupied the Caribbean, making it hard to determine which which is the one that it originated from. This area encompasses not only the lesser Antilles, but it also encompasses Guyana & North Venezuela. This map has no sea creature migration zones outlined on it. The map is extremely accurate, & shows the majority of the Caribbean islands, even the minor outlying islands. This map has no official name or cartographic collection that it is a part of. This map has very few topographical features, aside from The Orinoco River, & a few other Rivers. This map is uncoloured, for reasons unknown. It was not made for, or most likely used for Militaristic purposes. The map is centered on the Caribbean Sea, but not any specific country in it. This map has no rapids, underwater canyons, or things of such a nature. Since Lithography only became commercially popular in the 1820’s, & the map was made in 1807, lithography had not become commercially popular yet. Lithography was invented in 1798, so there is still a chance that it was made using that technique. The first technique it could have been made with was lithographic printing. In this method the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. The second method possible, is the engraving Method. This method was not to traditional at the time, though it could be done, it was not as common. In this technique, there are 5 jobs, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, the papermaker, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually there would only be 1-2 plates used, however it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Then after this, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. The first technique is more likely, as it could be done more easily & in higher quality. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Greater Blue-Ringed Octopus Of Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu (Hapalochlaena Lunulata) This months article will be about.. The western pacific island of Espiritu Santo! Espiritu Santo is an island that makes up the country of Vanuatu. It exists in the southwestern pacific ocean. It is incredibly far from land. Many marine animals from this isle migrated from Australia or other surrounding areas. The isle is approximately 3689.68 from mainland Vietnam. That is the closest to a continent that is considered “mainland”. It is a mere 998.36 miles from the Australian province of Queensland. It is also approximately 3343.68 nautical miles from the Antarctica. Vanuatu is extremely biodiverse due to the great climate conditions & the nutrients in the waters. However, there is one species in particular which stands out from the rest, that species is known as the Greater Blue-Ringed Octopus. A tiny octopus that can kill someone if stung. They are one of the most toxic marine cephalopods in the world. These creatures are found throughout the coastal waters of Espiritu Santo. They exhibit bright blue rings on their bell & their tentacles. This is an important characteristic as it can tell the difference between other species of octopi. These blue rings will flash as a warning sign for approximately a third of a second. They are incredibly small & the toxins that they inject you with can be lethal. They are native to the Indo-west pacific region. In this article we will discuss the life of the greater blue-ringed octopus, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the greater blue-ringed octopus, the distribution of the greater blue-ringed octopus, the scientific detailings of the greater blue-ringed octopus, & what to do in the event that you are attacked by a greater blue-ringed octopus. They are not considered to be endangered or threatened by modern scientists. The Life Of The Blue-Ringed Octopus This species was first described in 1832, however it was not originally called its modern name. It was named Octopus lunulatus at the time. It was offically discovered by Jene René Constant Quoy & Joseph Paul Gaimard. It is not known how exactly this creature was discovered. Even though it is incredibly deadly, it has a mere length average of 11 centimeters (4.33071 inches). They only weigh about 55 grams (0.121254 pounds or 0.055 kilograms) on average regardless of gender. However they may weigh as little as 10 grams (0.0220462 pounds or 0.01 kilograms) or much as 100 grams (0.220462 pounds or 0.1 kilograms). The average life span of them is 3.75 years, this is regardless of gender. Cephalopods in general are incredibly smart. However blue ringed octopi in particular are proven to have high levels of intelligence. It is not known exactly how long this species has existed for as a whole. They often consume small fish & crustaceans. They are cannibalistic & will consume each other while fighting over territory. They will consume what ever will fit in their beaks. They hunt by grabbing onto their prey & injecting it with deadly venom. They will then poke a hole in the exoskeleton of the animal & suck the animals remains out. They do not have teeth. They will then consume the prey. Most often they will hunt during the daylight hours. However, they may switch cycles of hunting during different hours throughout their lifetimes. It is not known how much they consume per day. Their metabolism is not very fast as they do not often swim very fast, instead opting to eat whatever passes by. The largest predator of this species is eels, specifically the Moray Eel. Whales, seals, & waterbirds also often hunt this animal. They often avoid interacting with humans & they lead a rather solitary life besides when they look for a mate. They will only attack humans if they feel threatened enough. They are incredibly territorial & do not enjoy other blue ringed octopi trespassing on their territory. As a reaction this octopus may consume the trespasser. They have eight tentacles & are often dark yellow, grey, tan, or beige in colour. They have a sac like head. They have bright blue rings all over their bodies & tentacles. The rings usually have dark yellow colouring on the inside. These rings will grow brighter as a warning sign that they will attack. The Mating Tactics, Procedures, Practices, & Cycles Of The Blue-Ringed Octopus Cephalopods mate in incredibly strange ways. The Blue-ringed octopus mates via sexual reproduction. They are not monogamous & do not form emotional bonds with each other romantically. They are not hermaphroditic & cannot change genders in any capacity. They will have the urge to mate once they reach adulthood. The females will only have one gestation period once before dying. If she survives longer she will have multiple. The male however, will mate with every female octopus he gets the chance to. They reach full sexual maturity at age 10 months to 12 months. This is for both genders of octopi. They do not appear to have a specific breeding month in which breeding spikes. This means that mating is a year-round event. However, the season in which most females lay their eggs is mid-winter. Their approximate gestation period is 4 months. The male will initiate courtship by stroking his arm along the female. After this the male will use a modified arm to eject the sperm. This arm has a sac directly attached to it that holds the raw sperm. After this the male will insert his modified arm into the females oviduct. She will not have the eggs fertilized immediately & will keep the sperm until she decides to lay her eggs. These eggs will hatch after approximately 4 months. She will lay 50 to 100 eggs. The female will take care of the eggs & carefully build a shelter for them during this time. When they hatch the babies will immediately swim off into the ocean. They will not stay around & will not fight with each other. After they hatch, the female will die. This baby octopus will grow extremely quickly & increase its body weight by 5% every day. It will consume many things very rapidly. After this the cycle is repeated. The Distribution Of The Greater Blue-Ringed Octopus The greater Blue-ringed octopus is found all throughout oceania. They are found from Sri Lanka, to the Philippines, & to the Solomon islands. They are found in especially high density off the coast of northern Australia. They are only found here & currently are not an invasive species anywhere. They prefer these tropical areas most likely due to good climate & abundance of food. As far as current knowledge goes, they are only found in water above 75° Fahrenheit (23.8889° Celsius). They also prefer shallow water which is another reason for this choice of habitat. They are not often found deeper then 20 meters (65.6168 feet). They are commonly found throughout tidal areas, shallow coral reefs, & can be even seen on top of clumps of algae. It is important to mention that if you happen to be in the Indo-West pacific, do not pick up octopi even if they look deceased. This species has no known subspecies. The Scientific Detailings Of The Greater Blue-Ringed Octopus Blue ringed octopi in general are infamous for their strong & potent venom. Their venom is composed of tetrodotoxin, histamine, tryptamine, octopamine, taurine, acetylcholine & dopamine. The reason that they developed this poison is for the purpose of hunting & defence. Once this venom has made contact you may experience nausea, headaches, respiratory arrest, overall pain, heart failure, blindness or vision impairment in 1 or both eyes, & in exceptional situations total paralysis. Due to the fact that they are cephalopods they may fit anywhere that their beak allows them to. They have special skin cell structures that allow them to flash their rings in a brighter fashion. These flashes are usually very bright & brief. The fast flashes are achieved using muscles under direct neurological control. The ring is hidden by contraction of muscles above the iridophores; relaxation of these muscles & contraction of muscles outside the ring expose the iridescence. They do not have bones at all or teeth. As for their anatomy, they have separate neurological functions for each tentacle. Also all of their organs are located in their bell. They move via jet propulsion. They suck in water & then push it out in order to move properly. In this way, they do not exactly swim. The image above illustrates their anatomy & the placement of their organs. They have a total of 3 hearts much like squid. They have 2 branchial hearts which pump blood to their gills. At this point the blood will take in oxygen & be sent off to the systemic heart. After this the systemic heart will pump the blood all over the body. Their blood is also blue instead of red. The reason for this is due to a copper rich protein known as Hemocyanin existing in their blood. The existence of this protein in their blood causes their blood to be blue. This is very similar to the iron in Hemoglobin in human blood. This blue blood exists in all cephalopods. This species most likely evolved from Monoplacophora. This is a small barnacle looking creature that has a single cap shaped shell. They have an incredibly complex neurological structure. They do not have a central brain as we think of it. They have individual systems for each tentacle. This is why if you chop off an octopus tentacle it will still move afterwards. They can also feel extreme amounts of pain. They can also feel emotions towards octopi & other humans. If they are wronged they may hold a grudge against people or other octopi until they die. However, they may also become emotional attached to humans. They may feel different about certain humans. They are able to recognize human faces to a certain extent. Their phylum is known as Mollusca. Mollusca is the 2nd largest phylum, just behind Arthopoda. Mollusca is however the largest marine phylum as it comprises approximately 23% of all documented marine species. The three most commonly found features defining modern species categorized under molluscs are the following: a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing & excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Their class is Cephalopoda. This class includes almost all species of cuttlefish, octopi, squid, & nautilus. Their order is Octopoda. This order contains the same types of species as Cephalopoda. A universal characteristic of this order is that all species classified under this are invertebrates. Their family is Octopodidae. This family contains the majority of all documented octopus species. Their genus is Hapalochlaena. This genus holds the 4 species of blue-ringed octopus. Their Binomial name is Hapalochlaena Lunulata. What To Do In The Event Of A Greater Blue-Ringed Octopus Attack Step. 1 Exit The Water Immediately If you are stung in the water it is important to exit the water. Avoid getting sand in the wound if possible. Step. 2 Keep The Injured Person Laying Down It is important to keep the person from panicking as well. Step. 3 Apply A Large Elastic Bandage On The Injured Site. Use pressure immobilization bandages to wrap the area. Wrap tightly. Step. 4 Add Splint To The Limb That Is Stung. Splint the area that is stung with any firm object that is available. Make sure to avoid moving the limb. Step. 5 Call Emergency Medical Services This step is crucial to the victims survival. Greater Blue-ringed octopus bites can cause death in as little as 20 minutes. If you are in Australia call 000. If you are on Vanuatu call 22100. If the person does not receive proper care they may go into total paralysis. Step. 6 Prepare To Perform Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Due to the sting, the person may go into cardiac arrest. If emergency services do not arrive on time you must be ready to perform CPR. In order to do so, begin by placing the person on a flat, firm, & stable surface. After this give 30 chest compressions. Place both hands centered on the chest. Your shoulders should be directly over your hands & your elbows should be locked. Make sure to allow the chest to return to normal position before the next compression. Give 2 breaths as well. Open the airway to a past-neutral position using the head-tilt/chin-lift technique. Ensure each breath lasts about 1 second & makes the chest rise; allow air to exit before giving the next breath. Act quickly as venom can cause death within 20 minutes. Directories / Credits https://octonation.com/octopedia/greater-blue-ringed-octopus/ https://www.aims.gov.au/docs/projectnet/blue-ringed-octopus.html https://octopusworlds.com/blue-ringed-octopus/ https://animals.net/blue-ringed-octopus/ https://www.divescotty.com/underwater-blog/blue-ringed-octopus.php http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2013/koehn_kate/reproduction.htm https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23053367/ https://www.redcross.org/take-a-class/cpr/performing-cpr/cpr-steps https://www.healthline.com/health/blue-ringed-octopus-bite https://www.mydr.com.au/first-aid-self-care/first-aid-for-bites-and-stings-blue-ringed-octopus/ https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mind-of-an-octopus/ https://www.dw.com/en/do-octopuses-have-emotions/a-61246001 https://theworld.org/stories/2016-07-11/more-surprising-things-about-octopus-our-favorite-cephalopod Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter, will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however it is a separate entity. In todays article, we will catalog the various species of seagrass found in & around Garrapata Beach. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, this was done with the correct permits & research, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do it. On October 29th, 2023, we sent 3 field agents to Garrapata Beach. What they found was that there are 2 primary species of seagrass / kelp found along the beach. These species are Macrocystis Pyfiera, & Ulva Lactuca. We have taken the coordinates &, a sample of these species, in order to study them. To be clear, this is a survey that will only be conducted once, & not yearly like the Malibu surveys. This beach is a part of the Garrapata State Park, located along the Northern Coast of California. The state park is located just south of Monterey, next to Carmel-by-the-sea. This survey is a stand alone study. With that being said, let us delve into the seagrasses of Garrapata Beach. The Results Of The Survey Seagrass Species 1: Nereocystis Luetkaena (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp) The most prominent species of seagrass found along the coastal area of Garrapata State Park, is Nereocystis Luetkaena. Nereocystis Luetkaena is a species of marine plant grows from California to the Aleutian islands in Alaska. Occasionally, uprooted individuals from this species will float from California, to Baja California, which will result in them washing up on the beaches of Baja California. This seaweeds thick stems washed up along the central part of the beach in fairly high quantities. This species of kelp usually grows in subtidal areas, with high waves. Nereocystis is an annual plant, which means it will grow from a singular spore to a full plant in one year. In the winter, the kelp will die off the year, causing large blooms to rise to the surface & wash up along the Pacific Coast. Unfortunately, we couldn’t measure the specimen as when we tried to, it completely disintegrated. Additionally,we couldn’t notate the coordinates of where this specimen was found, due to the equipment not being waterproof. Our specimen was not the stipe of the plant, but it was a leaf blade of the plant. The stipe of the plant is a dark brown colour, & semi-conical in shape. The leaves are green & located on the top of the plant. These leaves are rectangular. The stipe is hallow, & can be as long as 118 feet long. The ball shaped pneumatocyst atop the stipe contains carbon monoxide, which is a deadly gas. This species is a favourite food of kelp crabs, who can be seen grazing in bullwhip kelp forests. Seagrass Species 2: Ulva Lactuca (Sea Lettuce) Ulva Lactuca is the second most prominent seagrass species found along Garrapata Beach. Ulva Lactuca is a species of seagrass found all over the world. Ulva Lactuca grows along both the eastern & western coasts of North & South America, Europe, the Caribbean, Africa, The Indian Ocean, All of Asia, & Oceania. The leaves of this species are extremely recognizable, as they are flat, thin, neon green, & rectangular. This species often grows along the subtidal rocky areas. Our specimen of this species was 6.29921 inches (16 centimeters) long, & 1.5748 inches (4 centimeters) at its widest point. It was found at 36°25’10 North, & 121°54’54” West. This species was extremely scarce along Garrapata Beach, except for 1 whole plant washing up along with a large piece of Nereocystis Luetkaena. The only individuals of this species that washed up were found along the central area of the beach. In Scotland, Ulva Lactuca is used in soups & salads. In Hawaiian cuisine, Ulva Lactuca is called limu & is often used to top different dishes. It is also used to adorn hula skirts. Rotting Ulva Lactuca is extremely deadly, & has caused at least 2 deaths. The Rotting thallus will produce Hydrogen Sulfide, which causes cell hypoxia, & death. This is why when handling large quantities of Ulva Lactuca, safety precautions need to be in place. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of The Greek Island Of Crete Todays article will discuss the known history of the greek island of Crete. Crete is approximately 52.33 Nautical/Marine miles from mainland Greece. It is also approximately 96.98 miles from mainland Turkey. The formating for this article will be slightly different. We hope that this does not cause any navigational issues or confusion. It is currently owned by the country of Greece. Crete has a total of 24 municipalities. It has 4 regional units which are known as Chania, Rethymno, Heraklion, & Lasithi. As of 2023 there are a total of 5 cities on Crete. Crete is an island that exists in the eastern Mediterranean region. It is the largest island owned by Greece. It is also the 5th largest island in the Mediterranean sea. Crete’s history is incredibly interesting due to the many groups of people that have lived on the island. Also due to the fact that it was colonized during certain eras in which many large historical events went on. Crete was also the center of many ancient civilizations. It has a long winding history from war to war & has many different & interesting relationships with different historical city states. It is also incredibly well documented. Different governments of Greece have caused many different things to become of Crete. There are also many marine mythological creatures that are rumoured to have been located here. In this article we will discuss the discoveries & documented history of Crete as a whole, The known aboriginals of Crete, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Crete, & finally a segment on the Cretian economy. With that being said, let us delve into the isle of Crete. The Documented History Of Crete Before Colonization By The Ottoman Empire & Greece As A Unified Nation Prehistoric Age / Neolithic Age A claim was made in 2002 by the palaeontologist known as Gerard Gierlinski that the fossil footprints on crete were from 5.6 million years ago. He claims that they were made by early human ancestors. However this claim has yet to be fully confirmed. Excavation throughout the 2000’s have found stone tools that were approximately 130,000 years old. This would put it at 127,991 B.C. This would also put it in the period of time known as the lower Paleolithic. This lead to a reorganization of many timelines due to the previous thought that the first crossing of the Mediterranean was in approximately 12,000 B.C. These stone tools were found in the region of Crete known as Plakias. These tools were mostly hand axes that were made in the Acheulean Type. They were made of a kind of quartz. After this point there were 2 settlements built on Crete. There settlements were most likely from Africans who used rafts to sail into the Mediterranean. The settlements were called Knossos & Trapeza. There are also archeological records that depict houses, palaces, roads, paintings, & other forms of art. However, we have no way of checking whether these records are correct or not. These settlements were not constantly in use & would sometimes go years without a having people in them. Colonization was not continuous. The first settlers introduced numerous species as the growing civilization required food & resources. These were mostly goats, sheep, cattle, pigs, dogs & legumes. As the civilization grew, they began slowly forcing species to extinction or to migrate. Before the first settlements, species such as Paleoloxodon chaniensis (pygmy elephant) & the Martes Foina (beech martin) roamed the island. However most of these prehistoric animals that were found on Crete, were forced into total extinction by the last ice age. This same chain of events also occurred on many other Mediterranean islands, most notoriously Sicily. The remains of a bronze palace in the settlement of Knossos date back to the 7th Millennium B.C. Surprisingly, Knossos to this day remains the only aceramic site of Crete. After Colonization The Minoan Crete The Minoans were a bronze age civilization of the Aeagan sea. Especially Crete. They began in approximately 3500 B.C. They built complex structures & were urbanizing the islands of the Aeagan sea rather fast. The majority of these structures & civilizations that they built were after 2000 B.C. However, they began on a decline in about 1450 B.C. This was until 1100 B.C were they finally ended as a group & would never come back. They had 2 scripts for the purpose of writing, these scirpts were known as Linear A & the second one did not have a name. The second one looked quite similar to Egyptian hieroglyphics. The Minoans most likely got the idea for the second language from the Egyptians, or there was at least some sort of inspiration between the 2. We have discovered clay tablets in which they would inscribe Linear A. These tablets have primarily been found on Crete however they have also been found on a few other Aeagan isles. The name Minoan derives from the legendary king known as King Minos. It is not clear the government system that they had in place. They did have arts & had distinction pottery styles. They also enjoyed having largely embellished palaces. This can be seen as a palace-complex has been uncovered in Knossos which is one of the oldest & most well preserved Minoan sites. These palaces have also been found at palaces such as Phaistos. These were incredibly intricate for the time & were often multi-story. They would also have drainage systems. The queen of this civilization also had a bath & a flushing toilet. Their religious & government systems were relatively unknown has they did not write very much down. The Minoans faced many earthquakes & different natural disasters. This caused many different issues for the developing civilization. Their downfall has been linked to an eruption of the volcano that was so bad, they it blew the island of Thera completely apart. From this they faced tsunamis & earthquakes as well as other air related side effects. The Roman Crete Marcus Antonius Creteus attacked the island of Crete in 71 B.C & was repelled. Then in 69 BC, Rome commissioned Quintus Caecilius Metellus &, following a ferocious three-year campaign, Crete was conquered for Rome in 66 BC. This was after it became a senatorial province of the roman empire in 67 B.C. Metellus earning the victorious title of "Creticus" as an honour for his conquest and subjugation of Crete. After this point it was known It was known as Crete & Cyrenaica. It is today part of modern Greece & Libya. Its capital of this province was named named Gortyn. This capital would have been in the area around the modern day archeological site known basilica. Basilica was a large, multi-story building that was used by the romans for various purposes. As the roman empire expanded, the church finally began in the 1st century. Something that was revealed in Epistle To Titus which was one of the 3 pastoral epistles, is that the people of Crete were always considered liars, evil Beasts, & gluttons. It was unfortunately disestablished as a province in the western roman empire in 297 A.D. However it remained part of the eastern Roman Empire until it became property of the Liberian muslims in the 820’s. Arab / Liberian Crete In the 820’s, the Liberians took Crete from the eastern roman empire. They than established the island as a emirate. The archbishop known as Cyril of Gortyn was murdered by these Liberians. They destroyed the city & made sure that it would never be recognized again. The city was never reorganized & therefore never reoccupied. They built a new capital known as Candia which would be near modern day Heraklion. After this point it became the center for muslim culture & a head point for many years. Campaigns from the eastern roman empire to recover the island came but however almost none of them moved past the tactical planning stage. However, in the year of 961 A.D when Nikephoros Phokas conquered Crete. They held the island until 1204 during the 4th Crusade. After this the island was disputed between the Genoese & the Venetians. The Venetian Crete Crete was captured by the Venatians during the 4th Crusade. At this point the Crete were known as the Kingdom Of Candia. It officially became known as an overseas colony of the Republic of Venice. The Cretans were clearly not very fond of this as many rebellions broke out. The most important of which is known as the revolt of Saint Titus. This revolt occurred in 1363. It was caused by Cretan aboriginals & venetian settlers on Crete being exasperated by the draconian tax policy. These groups of people banded together & overthrew the Venetian officials. They then became an independent republic. However this did not last for long as after 5 years it was recaptured by the Venetians. After this period of rebellion the new era of renaissance in art & culture finally made its way to the island. Literature flourished on the island & many greek poets emerged. A quite famous epic romantic poem that can be traced to this age is known as Erotokritos by Vitsentzos Kornaros. A dialect of greek was also formed, this dialect would only be spoken by Crete. Painting also became much more popular & many prominent greek painters can be traced to being born on Crete at this time. This may have influenced the way that they worked. However, the ottomans would go on to capture Crete in 1669. The Ottoman Crete The ottoman empire captured Crete during the Cretan war which lasted from 1645 to 1669. This was possibly the longest siege in history. They overran Crete & managed to kick out most Venetians & the Venetian government. The last Venetian outpost which was known as Spinalonga, was captured in 1718. Crete remained in the clutches of the ottoman empire until 1861. There was a diversity of religion due to the different types of settlers on the island. It was also at this point where the Muslim religion became more widely spread. During the the last Ottoman census in 1881, it was found that Christians were 76% of the population, & astoundingly Cretan Turks made up only 24%. Christians were over 90% of the population in 19 out of the 23 of the districts of Crete. However, Muslims were over 60% of the population in the three large towns on the north coast, & in Monofatsi. When the greek war of independence happened in 1821, the christian Cretans saw an opportunity for freedom. The christians began revolting, this was met with fierce resistance from the ottoman turks. The ottomans executed several bishops due to the conflict. The Turkish Muslims were driven into the large fortified towns on the northern coast & it appears from our current records that as many as 60% of them died from plague or famine while there. These towns were mainly constructed by the ottoman turks. The christian Cretans also suffered severely with the result of losing approximately 21% of their population in the 1830s. The Most Destructive Man Caused & Natural Disasters Of Crete No.1 365 Cretan Earthquake The 365 earthquake was an earthquake that occurred on July 21st 365 A.D. It occurred in the eastern Mediterranean. This earthquake nearly blew the island of Crete as we know it apart. Unfortunately we don’t have an exact measurement, however it is estimated that it was at a magnitude of 8.5 or higher. This earthquake also triggered a quite large tsunami. The exact number is not record however thousands of deaths occurred a as a direct result of this earthquake. No.2 Various Annual Flashfloods Crete has annual flash floods every year quite predictably. In 2022 they caused 2 deaths & they are destined to cause more. They don’t often cause mudslides. The areas that flood most often are coastal canyons. Coastal areas in general are also more susceptible to flash flooding. Areas with rivers also count a costal areas. The Economic State Of Crete The economic state of Crete is extremely stable & does not seem to have taken a large negative impact due to the pandemic. Its main industries are manufacturing & tourism. Unlike other Mediterranean islands, Crete can still independently operate & function without its tourism industry. The manufacturing industry however has recently been on a slow & small decline. The tourism industry became most prominent in the 1970’s & Crete has been the same ever sense. The tourism industry has been slowly expanding & growing throughout the island as well. Tourism is so prominent that Crete receives approximately 3 million tourists per year. Agriculture is also prominent however is significantly smaller industry compared to the other 2 major ones. Some common crops & exports from Crete are: wine, raisins, grapes, citrus fruits, water lemons, tomatoes, & potatoes. Processing & packaging also make up a large portion of their income. They are incredibly self sustainable. The island also had a higher GDP per capita then mainland Greece. The current inflation rate for Crete is unknown. The GDP per capita on the island in 2015 was 13,912. Directories / Credits https://www.britannica.com/place/Crete https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mino/hd_mino.htm https://www.britannica.com/topic/Minoan-civilization https://ancient-greece.org/history/minoan.html Margaritis, Giorgos (2006). Ιστορία του ελληνικού εμφυλίου πολέμου 1946-1949 [History of the Greek Civil War 1946-1949] (in Greek). Vol. II. Athens: Vivliorama. ISBN 9608087139 . Moorey, Chris. A History of Crete (Haus, 2019) Detorakis, Theocharis E. (1986). Ιστορία της Κρήτης [History of Crete] (in Greek). Athens. OCLC 715204595 . McTiernan, Mick, A Very Bad Place Indeed For a Soldier. The British involvement in the early stages of the European Intervention in Crete. 1897 – 1898, King's College, London, September 2014 . Panagiotakis, Nikolaos M. (1987). "Εισαγωγικό Σημείωμα ("Introduction")". In Panagiotakis, Nikolaos M. (ed.). Crete, History and Civilization (in Greek). Vol. I. Vikelea Library, Association of Regional Associations of Regional Municipalities. pp. XI–XX. Marie-Louise Winbladh, Minoans and Mycenaeans in west Crete. The Greek-Swedish Excavations at Chaniá, Stockholm 2000. Marie-Louise Winbladh, Adventures of an archaeologist. Memoirs of a museum curator, AKAKIA Publications, London 2020 https://balkaninsight.com/2022/10/17/the-bad-weather-left-two-people-dead-and-a-huge-disaster-on-the-greek-island-of-crete/ https://greekreporter.com/2022/10/15/flash-floods-crete/ https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/news/2022/10/15/one-dead-and-others-missing-in-flash-floods-in-greek-island-crete https://www.nature.com/articles/srep01285 https://www.britannica.com/event/Mediterranean-earthquake-and-tsunami-of-365 http://www.thehotel.gr/info/en/Crete/Economy https://www.interkriti.org/crete/pg/?pg=1487404 https://www.keeptalkinggreece.com/2018/01/24/greece-per-capita-gdp-elstat/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Marine Hall Of Distinction: Yoichirō Hirase This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main month series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Our marine biologist for this month's article, is Yoichiro Hirase. Yoichiro Hirase is a Japanese Malacologist, & businessman. He is widely considered to be the first of the great Japanese Malacolgists. He together with his son, Shintarō Hirase, assembled the second-largest collection of molluscs, ever. We published an article on his son, Shintarō Hirase, on September 15th of 2023. His collection at its largest was 8,000 specimens. After Yoichiro’s death, his son inherited the Hirase Collection, & continued it. His Son managed to grow it to 15,000 at its largest. He was also the founder of Hirase’s Conchological Magazine, & Hirase’s Conchological Museum. Copies of Hirase’s Conchological Magazine can be found online today, most notably through this link: https://archive.org . Yoichiro was also a mentor of Tokubei Koruda, another famous Japanese malacologist. Unfortunately, there isn’t much information on his personal life, so certain parts of this article will not be very fleshed out. Hirase’s research caused approximately 27 species of marine shellfish to be named in his honour, & his enthusiasm for malacology is not forgotten. In this article, we will discuss his early life & education, his later life & career, & finally his awards, honourables, achievements & accomplishments. With that being said, let us delve into the life of Yoichiro Hirase. His Early Life & Education Yoichiro Hirase was born on December fourth of 1859. He was born on Awaji Island, in the Hyōgo Prefecture, located in the south of Japan. He was born the eldest son of a wealthy family. As a child, he was said to be physically weak, but very intelligent. His Later Life & Career At the beginning of his Career, he was not in the field of malacology. He started off a trader, selling poultry, seeds, & avicultural products. He first began in the field of selling, & trading shells in 1898, at the age of 39. In 1901, he hired Tokubei Kuroda as a houseboy. He originally hired Tokubei to clean his large house, & watch the children during the day, but seeing promise in this young man, he paid him to go to school & learn English in night classes. Hirase also arranged for him to learn systematics biology. The fellow excelled in these subjects, & soon became pivotal to the founding of the Hirase Shell Museum, which was opened in 1913. Kuroda became Hirase’s secretary, & handled the majority of correspondence with other researchers, & scientists. Kuroda also helped to establish Hirase’s Conchological Magazine. Unfortunately, the museum closed after only 6 years due to Hirase’s Illness, & due to financial pressure from World War I. From 1898 to 1925, he amassed a collection of 8,000 shells. He personally didn’t usually go on missions to get them himself, instead getting a team of field dealers together & having them get the specimens. Unfortunately, on May 25th of 1925, Yoichiro Hirase passed away. His legacy in the world of Malacology will never be forgotten, & his contributions will be remembered. His Awards, Achievements, Honourables, & Accomplishments He had approximately 27 marine biological species named after him. He assembled the largest mollusc collection in the world, which grew to 15,000 at its largest. He opened Hirase’s Conchological Museum, which was one of the first shell museums in Japan, & most certainly sparked public interest in the topic. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Kajin - Shell Men” Written By Unknown & Published on the 8th of March, 2018. Published by Living Culture - Lixil. Retrieval Date: September 15th, 2023. https://livingculture.lixil.com/en/topics/assets/kaijin_3.pdf Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding The Greek Island Of Crete Todays Article Will Discuss, The Oceans Surrounding Island Of Crete. Crete is approximately 52.33 Nautical/Marine miles from mainland Greece. It is also approximately 96.98 miles from mainland Turkey. The island of Crete is owned by Greece as of 2023. Crete is in the Mediterranean sea. It is in the eastern Mediterranean. It is the 5th largest island in the Mediterranean sea. Crete is incredibly biodiverse & interesting due to species that are only found throughout the Mediterranean, such as the Mediterranean monk seal. Crete has a coastline that stretches over 650 miles (1046.07 kilometers) long. It is also common place for recreational oceanic activities. This is due to how unpolluted & beautiful the waters generally are. However, Cretes waters are somewhat mysterious & have many strange tales told of it. The Minoans of Crete made sculptures of what looked to be sea monsters. There are also many different types of greek oceanic monsters that were believed in by the greeks. The Minoans, followed greek mythology. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the greek isle of Kriti. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Crete Crete is one of the most southern greek islands. It is also the largest greek island. The actual salinity of the waters within a 5 Nautical/Marine mile radius has not been measured or has not been released to the public domain. There are no factors that would cause a change in the salinity level around the island. Salt deposits also seem to be more common around the island. However, the average salinity of the Mediterranean sea at any given time is 38 parts per thousand. So it can be assumed that the salinity of the island is around 38 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. The temperature chart for crete can be found a plethora of websites, here are a few that are the simplest to navigate: https://www.seatemperature.org , SeaTemperature.infohttp , WaterTemperature.nethttps , SeaTemperatu.rehttps, & finally https://weather-and-climate.com . The tides are very calm & there is barely any tide at all. Waves larger then 2 feet are very unusual. There is very rarely a high surf that would cause danger to a person. This makes it a great place for recreational swimmers. The deepest oceanic areas of the island are located on the northeastern edge of the island. The ocean reaches a maximum depth of 10,000 feet (3,048 meters). However some nautical maps claim a maximum depth of a mere 8,500 feet (2590.8 meters). There is not a current around the island & sudden currents are not common. There is also very low riptide which makes recreational swimming easier. However, just because swimming is usually safe it does not mean that you should not listen to any advisories or warnings put out by the greek government. Oceanic pollution on Crete is not bad at all. The water is perfectly safe to swim in & as of 2023 has some of the cleanest water among the greek islands. The Most Important Marine Ecosystems Of Crete Wetlands / Marshland Crete has beautiful wetlands & estuaries all throughout the island. There are countless of these found along river banks on the island. These wetlands usually have wading birds, various fish, & water snakes. Many aquatic birds live in this area, making it somewhat delicate. These areas are commonly used for bird watching. They are mostly salt water however a few are freshwater. These wetlands usually filter off into smaller pond areas. They are incredibly biodiverse & also a few of them effectively function as dams. The most common seagrass found in this area is known as Posidonia Oceanica (Mediterranean Tapeweed). These areas are mostly located in the western areas of Crete. Underwater Rocky Areas These areas are found close off the coast of Crete. They usually consist of small rock formations which fish will use as shelter. Oftentimes these areas are found anywhere from 10 feet (3.048000 meters) to 240 feet (73.152 meters deep. However they can be found deeper. Oftentimes this is the hunting ground of squid & octopi. This ecosystem is one of the most commonly found. This area is one of the most versatile. Seagrass Beds This area can be found anywhere off the coast of Crete. The only seagrass species found here is known as Posidonia Oceanica. These areas are usually home to many species & are often the most egg-laying grounds for species. This ecosystem is also often one of the most delicate types of ecosystems. The seagrass has many unique uses to different species. Coral Reefed Areas These areas are found dotted off the coast of the island. They are usually found between 1/2 of a mile to 4 miles off shore. However the coral are not like the corals off the tropics. These corals are calcified algae colonies. This was discovered during an experiment by the Thalassa Foundation. One of the divers Dimitris Poursanidis, said this. “These formations are biogenic structures, Their base is mainly red, orange & purple algae, which have a special characteristic. They coat their cell walls with calcite, one of the crystalline forms of calcium carbonate which is found dissolved in seawater.”. This creates a unique effect as creatures can safely make shelters in the coral while it is still growing. These structures will also create natural bumps & holes which later get occupied by marine animals. The Documented Marine Flora Of Crete Crete is not very biodiverse when it comes to marine plants. There is only 1 native seagrass species that is found near Crete. That species is known as Posidonia Oceanica. This species is found all around the island, including around the marshes. It provides many things for different species, such as food, shelter, attracting other species, & generally enriching the oceanic ecosystem. However seagrasses aren’t the only marine plants, The Pancratium Maritmium (Sea daffodil) has also naturalized itself throughout the island. This species isn’t exactly a “marine” plant because it doesn’t live underwater, however it does live on coastal sand dunes on different parts of Crete. It sprouts in the sand & grows on the beach, getting nutrients from the ocean in the process. It often gets covered in sand so that makes it sort of scarce. It look similar to an average lily that would be found on land. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Crete Crete is extremely biodiverse when it comes to marine fauna. Crete is one of the nutrient rich areas which attracts creatures from all throughout the Mediterranean. Most namely the Mediterranean monk seal. Crete appeals to many different species of smaller fish which is most likely how it got so diverse today. It is also marine protected which provides a sense of security. This is much better then say a bit further northwest or really anywhere else in the Mediterranean where fishing takes place more often. Many of these species live here year round however there are a few that will migrate out of the Mediterranean. With that being said, let us get into the most important species to the marine ecosystems of Crete. They are as follows: Monachus Monachus (Mediterranean monk seal), Caretta Caretta (Loggerhead turtle), Octopus Vulgaris (Common octopus), Ornate Wrasse ( ), Loligo Vulgaris (European squid), Sardina Pilchardus (European pilchard), Spicara Smaris (Picarel), Mullus surmuletus (red mullet), Pagellus Erythrinus (common pandora), Dentex Macrophthalmus (Large-eye dentex), Dentex Dentex (Common Dentex), Merluccius merluccius (Whiting), Epinephelus aeneus (white grouper), Epinephelus marginatus (dusky geouper), Conger Conger (European conger), Scomber Japonicus (chub mackerel), Seriola dumerelli (yellowtail amberjack), Sarda Sarda (Atlantic Bonito), Xiphias Gladius (swordfish), Thunnus thynnus (northern bluefin tuna), Mustelus mustelus (smooth hound), Squalus Acanthias (piked dogfish), Prionace glauca (blue shark), Exocoetus Voltians (tropical two-wing flying fish), Zeus Faber (John dory), Mola Mola (ocean sunfish), Chelidonichthys lastoviza (Streaked gurnard), Balistes carolinensis (Grey Triggerfish), Torpedo Nobiliana (Atlantic torpedo), Paracentrotus lividus (purple sea urchin), species from the seahorse genus of hippocampus, Sepia officinalis (cuttlefish), & Finally Loligo Duvauceli (Indian ocean squid). How The Marine Resources Of Crete Were Utilized Historically & Modernly The Minoans were great sailors without a doubt. They occupied the island for a long period of time. These oceans would act as a source of food & transport for them. They valued the ocean & would often display their love for the ocean in their arts. Modernly, humans have used the ocean surrounding Crete for commercial fishing, cruises, scuba diving, & snorkelling. However, the harbours on Crete have slowly been running out the wild life. Humans have also somewhat terrorized the wildlife with overfishing, oil spills, & boat fuel. Most notably, in 2017 when a tanker left a trail of oil that totalled a mile in length. This shows that humans should evaluate the benefits that they get from hunting a certain creature & then evaluate what the outcome would be for that species. This also shows that humans should improve their ways of carrying oil via ocean. Directories / Credits https://www.worldatlas.com/amp/seas/sea-of-crete.html https://www.incrediblecrete.gr/en/islands/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330600209_Seagrass_Mapping_and_Monitoring_Along_the_Coasts_of_Crete_Greece https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/pancratium-maritimum/ https://www.intocrete.net/features/wildflowers.asp https://www.sfakia-crete.com/sfakia-crete/crete-sealife.html https://www.explorecrete.com/nature/fish-2.html https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Art/ https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/greek-island-bay-black-oil-spill-salamis-selinia-taker-sinks-ecological-disaster-athens-a7944291.html?amp https://www.dla.mil/About-DLA/News/News-Article-View/Article/1362909/dla-energy-helps-clean-up-oil-spill-in-greece/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Map Of New Haven, Connecticut This article is the fourth instalment in the Ode to Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map up for analysis, is a antique nautical map of the New Haven Harbour. New Haven has expanded since the maps making in 1847, & unfortunately for this reason we cannot say the exact length of the coast. The map is in very good condition, however it does look like parts of the border of the map are dirty, & the map has somewhat yellowed with time. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the waters of New Haven. The Map Itself Since this chart is in english, there is no reason to translate it into english. This map is centered on the New Haven Lighthouse. A Surface Level Analysis On This Nautical Chart We found this map through Maps Of Antiquity. This map was made by the United States Coastal Survey. It was made in the United States. This map is extremely accurate for the time, & the proportions of the map are shockingly correct. This map has no specific name, though it may belong to a specific volume of surveys. This map has no wind patterns, nor does it have any wave patterns on it. This map was most likely made to be uncoloured, so that it could be easily mass printed. There are no topographical features outlined on the map, as there are no mountains close-by the harbour. It was most likely used for military purposes, but it might not have been made for purely militaristic purpose. This map most certainly wasn’t hand drawn. There are 2 possibilities as to how the map was made, & the first of the 2 is more likely. The first method would be through lithographic printing. In this method the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. The second method possible, is the engraving Method. This method was not to traditional at the time, though it could be done, it was not as common. In this technique, there are 5 jobs, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, the papermaker, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually there would only be 1-2 plates used, however it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Then after this, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. The first technique is more likely, as it could be done more easily & in higher quality. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The European Squid Of Crete (Loligo Vulgaris) This months article series will be about.. The Greek Island Of Crete! Crete is approximately 52.33 Nautical/Marine miles from mainland Greece. It is also approximately 96.98 miles from mainland Turkey. The island of Crete is owned by Greece as of 2023. Crete is in the Mediterranean sea & is surrounded by many other greek islands. Crete is also one of the islands with the most land & marine biodiversity. It is incredibly appealing to animals as it has many marine resources. These areas are also It is a very interesting place to see different types of marine life. Namely because many different types of octopi & squid are found here. They are also found in high density here. The European squid is one of these species. It can frequently be found off the coast doing various things. The European squid is not invasive in any form to this area. As far as we know there are no species that are genetically close enough to it to be in a species complex. There used to be a subspecies under it known as Loligo reynaudii. However, This classification has since been revoked. It is native to the Mediterranean sea, the Irish sea, the northwest coast of Africa, & the island of Great Britain. In this article we will discuss the life of the European squid, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the European squid, the distribution of European squid, & the scientific detailings of the European squid. The Life Of The Europeans Squid It is unfortunately unknown when this species was discovered. It is also unknown as to who discovered it & how they discovered it. This squid can grow up to 75 centimeters (29.5276 inches). However some sources claim that they may only grow up to 50 centimeters (19.685 inches). At their smallest they are usually 10 centimeters (3.93701 inches). The females live on average 1.5 to 2 years. The males however, live approximately 3 years on about. They weigh on average 3.3 pounds (1.49685 kilograms) regardless of gender. As a species, they do not seem to exhibit any more intelligence then an average squid species. Squids as a whole are incredibly intelligent. They demonstrate problem solving skills. They also occasionally use their tentacles to pull themselves into small crevices. Much like octopi in a way. Unfortunately, it is extremely hard to tell when this exact species started existing. It is also hard to tell when squid started existing as they rarely fossilize or leave evidence that will confirm their existence in a certain time period. However, the earliest evidence that we have of them is during the Late Cambrian period. This would have been approximately 490 million years ago. This species ranks as Data Deficient on the IUCN red list. Meaning that this species has not yet been assessed by the IUCN red list. Their diet usually consists of small fish, crustaceans, & other squids. They are occasionally cannibalistic. They feed by using 2 tentacles to grab onto the food & put it into its beak. Their eating capacity is not known. Their hunting cycles are also unknown however it is presumed that they hunt at nighttime. Its beak is centred on the bottom of the squid in the center of the tentacles. This beak is usually used to snap the spinal cord of prey. They seem to lead a rather solitary life & seem to not really care for each other. They are not territorial & seem to roam about the ocean their entire lives. However, this is not true for larger squid species. They are not very aggressive towards humans as long as they are not provoked. Thankfully since they are so small in size, they cannot cause much damage towards humans or vessels. They are however, occasionally aggressive towards each other. They are invertebrates & don’t have bones at all. They may fit through holes that are less then 1 quarter of their size. The Loligo Vulgaris has a long, slender & cylindrical body. Rhomboid fins comprise two thirds of the mantle length. Though locomotion is via jet propulsion. The posterior border is slightly concave. The head is relatively small in proportion to the rest of the body & has large eyes which are covered with a transparent membrane. It is usually a yellowish amber colour or a salmon colour. The Mating Practices, Tactics, Cycles, & Procedures Of Ths European Squid Squids mate in rather strange ways due to the placement of certain parts of their genitalia. Squids mate via sexual reproduction. They are not monogamous & will not mate for life. They are not hermaphroditic & cannot change genders. Both genders reach sexual maturity at approximately 1 year after hatching. However, they will often only get the chance mate once in their life due to how short their lifespans are. If they survive for longer they will mate more throughout their life. They will usually mate towards the end of their lives. The males will court the females by changing the colour of their skin. The females are most fertile at 9-12 months old. They will change their skin to flashy colours. After initiation, the males will eject his sperm into the females oviduct. The males will use a penis or tube in order to transfer these sperm packets into the female. These packets will then break open. After this the male will swim off & not be seen again. The gestation period for the females is unknown. After this the females will eventually lay the eggs. She will eject these eggs through an orifice in her body (not her beak) onto the ocean floor. She will then swim away. She will not take care of them at all, however this is not the case for all squids. The female will have approximately 3,000 eggs. However they will not all hatch. After the European squid hatches, it will fend for itself. There unfortunately is no percentage of egg survival to adult rate. Soon after she releases eggs, she will die. They also do not appear to have any specific month. The Distribution Of The European Squid The European squid is found all throughout Europe. They are found in the highest density throughout the Mediterranean ocean. They are also found on the western coast of Africa, however they are found scarcely on the southwestern side of Africa. Occasionally, they can also be found just north of great Britain. They prefer colder, muddier environments & usually enjoy depths of 135 meters (442.913 feet).They also prefer sandier & barren environments. They are often not found near the sea floor & prefer to stay in the middle of the ocean. However they may be found as deep as 500 meters (1640.42 feet) & as high as 20 meters (65.6168 feet). They are often found much deeper during the winter months. They often will migrate towards Portugal in the winter & towards the south & north of France. The images above depict the known areas of where the species of Loligo Vulgaris is found. They also choose the most secluded areas, most likely to avoid interacting with vessels or other squid. The northern population of this species is also slightly different appearing then the southern population, however they are still the same species. This is also not to be confused with the species that roams in the same area known as Loligo Reynaudii or Loligo Vulgaris Reynaudii. The Scientific Detailings Of The European Squid The European squid is a strange creature due to the fact it can fit almost anywhere. Like many cephalopods, this creature manages to fit through holes less then a quarter of its size. They is partially due to the fact that they lack any hard matter such as bones, this excluded their parrot-like beak. However, there is another component to this. They can suck in water & blow out water. When they blow out water, they deflate & may fit wherever they so please. If their beak fits in an area, then the squid does as well. The same goes for octopi. As for their anatomy, here is a diagram as to how its organs are placed. The images above depict the anatomy of a squid. In this image it may look as if they have 2 hearts, however they have 3. They have 1 systemic heart which is in the middle of mantle. The other 2 are branchial or gill hearts which pump blood to the gills. What happens at the gills is that oxygen is taken up & the blood that was sent by the gill hearts is sent to the systemic heart. After this point the blood is pumped all throughout the body. Strangely enough, a squids blood is completely blue. The reason for this is due to the fact that they have a copper compound known as hemocyanin in their blood. This is similar to humans having hemoglobin in their blood which makes it red. Squids famously produce ink, their ink sack is located underneath the systemic heart which is the center of the mantle. They use this ink as a defensive mechanism to escape from potential threats. As the squid spews the ink cloud it can safely jet away. They release their ink from their siphon, which is located underneath the mantle & on the creatures back. Chemically speaking the ink usually includes melanin, enzymes related to melanin production, catecholamines, peptidoglycans, free amino acids & various metals. Also, due to the way that their nervous system is built they can feel pain. While squids do have small brains, they do not have a central nervous system. They do not have a centralized brain that controls the body as humans do. Their neurons are in various clusters around their body. These clusters are known as ganglia. These clusters will control various parts of the body. They also have very are very strange when it comes neuroscience. This is best said by Jade Zee, A professor at northeastern university. She says & we quote “We humans have white matter, which causes electrical signals to travel much, much faster in our neurons. Invertebrates don’t have that. So the invertebrate solution, if you want electrical signals travel faster, is to have a wider diameter axon of a neuron. The very first action potentials were recorded in what’s called the squid giant axon. It’s about a millimeter in diameter, which I know still sounds small, but that’s actually really, really big compared to other nerves.”. Their phylum is known as Mollusca. Mollusca is the 2nd largest phylum, just behind Arthopoda. Mollusca is however the largest marine phylum as it comprises approximately 23% of all documented marine species. The three most commonly found features defining modern species categorized under molluscs are the following: a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing & excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Their class is Cephalopoda. This class includes almost all species of cuttlefish, octopi, squid, & nautilus. Their order is Myopsida. This is an order of squids. A few universal traits of all squid categorized under Myopsida is that they lack a secondary eyelid, & are instead covered by a transparent corneal membrane. Their family is Loliginidae. This is a family of pencil squid. A common trait of species categorized in this family is that they are long & incredibly thin. Their genus is Loligo. This is a genus of squid. There are only 3 species categorized under Loligo. This is also one of the most widely distributed genera of Myopsid squid. Their binomial name is known as Loligo Vulgaris. Directories / Credits http://www.seawater.no/fauna/mollusca/vulgaris.html https://www.sealifebase.ca/summary/Loligo-vulgaris.html https://www.animalspot.net/squid https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/cephalopods https://britishseafishing.co.uk/european-squid/ https://www.perthnow.com.au/news/target-the-squids-territory-ng-24c7d96e24c5c281e5a0ef0704349f7a https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/cephalopoda.php https://www.tepapa.govt.nz/discover-collections/read-watch-play/science/colossal-squid/anatomy-colossal-squid/organs-colossal https://www.mbari.org/cephalopod-sex/ https://cimi.org/blog/cephalopod-inkwhat-is-it/ https://amp.theguardian.com/science/2017/aug/09/why-do-cephalopods-produce-ink-and-what-on-earth-is-it-anyway https://news.northeastern.edu/2019/06/27/what-squid-neurons-and-an-octopus-on-ecstasy-can-teach-us-about-ourselves/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology: Seagrass Survey Of Rincon Island State Beach This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however, it is a separate entity. In today's article, we will catalog the various species of seagrass found in & around Rincon Island State Beach. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, this was done with the correct permits & research, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do it. On October 7th of 2023, we sent out 2 field agents to Rincon Island State Beach, in order to catalog the seagrass species. What they found is that there were 4 species of seagrass found on the beach. We have taken the coordinates &, a sample of these species, in order to study them. To be clear, this is a survey that will only be conducted once, & not yearly like the Malibu surveys. This survey is a stand-alone study. With that being said, let us delve into the seagrasses of Rincon Island State Beach. The Results Of The Survey All specimens for this survey were taken from 3:10 to 3:21 p.m. on October 7th, 2023. The tidal positioning at the time of collection may influence the results of this survey. Seagrass Specimen No. 1: Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass / Seawrack) Zostera Marina is by far the most prominent species found on the beach. It was not found at all towards the western side of the beach, & was only found towards the eastern side of the beach. The seagrass was found in small clumps close to the shoreline, & never found with other seagrass species. We found studied 2 specimens for this species, the first of which was 6.29921 inches (26 centimeters) long & 1 millimeter wide. The second specimen was approximately 8 inches (20.32 centimeters) long, & 1 millimeter wide. Our specimen was found at the coordinates 34°21’24” North & 119°26’37” West. Usually, the stem & root of the seagrass is white. This species is a true seagrass, meaning it grows rooted on the seafloor, like grass. This species usually grows in water of 10 meters (32.8084) or less. This seagrass is very recognizable as it has long bright green blades, & is the only species in the Zostera Genus along the Californian coast. The species usually grows in meadows, & it is often consumed by waterfowl. They are extremely important to the coastal ecosystem as they provide a natural spawning area for many different marine species. This species is distributed from Alaska to Baja California. This species has existed for at least 8 million years, & has always been fundamental to California’s estuarine ecosystems. Seagrass Specimen No. 2: Macrocystis Pyfiera (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp) This species was the second most common species found on the beach but is found extremely rarely. It is found most commonly along the eastern portion of the beach, & is not found at all on the western portion of the beach. It is found extremely uncommonly even on the eastern side, with only 2 individual specimens being found along that portion of the shore. This is largely due to the rocks blocking anything from flowing on the western side of the shoreline. Our specimen was slightly dried out, & was 6.102362 inches (15.5 centimeters) long & 1 centimeter (0.393701 inches) wide. This specimen was also found at the coordinates of 34°21’26” North & 119°26’39” West. We also found a second specimen that is 23 inches (9.05512 centimeters) long, & 1 centimeter (0.393701 inches) wide. The coordinates at which it was found are 34°21’26” North & 119°26’39” West. Macrocystis Pyfiera is technically not a seagrass or a seaweed, it is a protist, but for the purposes of this article, it will still be included. Giant kelp is usually a brownish-green colour, with bumpy thin leaves that are more than an inch wide, & bulbous air-filled fruit that make them float up in the ocean. Under optimal conditions, Giant kelp can grow to 175 feet long (53.34 meters) however it usually only reaches 100 feet. Shockingly, they can grow up to 2 feet (0.6096 meters) every day, a growth rate only matched by bamboo. Giant kelp is found from Alaska to Baja California, & is also found in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, & certain parts of South America. They grow in rocky areas, deeper than 20 feet (6.096 meters). Seagrass Specimen No. 3: Ulva Lactuca (Sea Lettuce) Ulva Lactuca is the least commonly found species on Rincon Island State Beach by a wide margin. Our specimen wasn’t even found on the beach itself, it was found floating in the ocean by one of our field agents. For this reason, we cannot provide the coordinates for this species. Our specimen of this species was 3.34646 inches (8.5 centimeters) long &, 1 inch (2.54 centimeters) wide. This species is extremely recognizable as it is bright neon green, & looks vaguely like strips of lettuce. It is also translucent. The whole plant is bright green, & usually found in shallow areas. The seagrass is found in Europe, North America, South America, Central America, The Caribbean, The Indian Subcontinent, Southwestern Asia, Oceania, Australia, & New Zealand. In the majority of these places, they are also eaten with certain fish dishes, as they contain a very high amount of Vitamin B12. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology: Seagrass Survey Of El Matador Beach This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter, will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however, it is a separate entity. In today's article, we will catalog the various species of seagrass found in & around El Matador State Beach. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, that this was done with the correct permits, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do it. On September 16th, we sent out 2 field workers to do a seagrass survey of El Matador Beach. What they found was that there were 2 primary species of seagrass, those being Zostera Marina, & Macrocystis Pyfiera. Please do not attempt this without being aware of the permits necessary, or without prior research. To be clear, this is a survey that will only be conducted once, & not yearly like the Malibu surveys. This survey is a stand-alone study. With that being said, let us delve into the seagrasses of El Matador State Beach. The Survey Itself All specimens taken for this survey were taken between 1:05 & 1:09 PM, on September 16th of 2023. This was within 2 hours of high tide, so that may influence the results of this survey. Seagrass Species No. 1: Zostera Marina (Seawrack / Eelgrass) This species was the most prominent species on the beach. It was distributed evenly throughout the cove, & leaf blades of it could be found everywhere. It would never wash up in clumps, & would wash up in individual strands. It is extremely identifiable as it is long, thin, & bright green, compared to Macrocystis, which looks completely different. Our specimen was found near the rockier areas, further up the beach. This specimen was found at coordinates 34°2’18” North, & 118°52’32” West. Our specimen was measured at approximately 14.5669 inches (37 centimeters) long, & 1 millimeter wide. This was most likely the entire strand, & not a broken off piece of a strand. This species is a true seagrass, meaning it grows directly in the sea floor, instead of growing on a holdfast. It often grows in large patches, known as seagrass meadows. This species gets up to 3 meters at its largest, but that is under very specific environments. Around California, finding Zostera Marina which is 3 meters long is incredibly rare. This species usually has white root at its base, & long thin circular leaf blades. Zostera Marina is found in very cold waters, such as the Northern Pacific, & the Atlantic. This species typically grows in coastal areas, & estuaries. It is an extremely popular food among different species of waterfowl, & cattle when they get access to it. Seagrass Species No. 2: Macrocystis Pyfiera (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp) This was the second most prominent species of sea flora on the beach, as it is technically not a seaweed. Giant Kelp is not a plant either, as it is actually a protist. A protist is a eukaryotic organism that is not a plant, animal, or a fungi. Throughout the beach, it would wash up in rather large clumps, & very rarely ever wash up in small amounts. This is due to the natural clumping of Giant Kelp. It is very identifiable due to its berries filled with air, & its distinctive leaf shape. Our specimen for this species was approximately 17 inches (43.18 centimeters) long, & 0.393701 inches (1 centimeter) wide. The coordinates at which this specimen was found are 34°2’17” North, & 118°52’33” West. Giant kelp is found along the Pacific coast, from Alaska to Mexico, & then from Peru to Argentina. They tend to grow in giant forests along the Pacific coast. At their maximum, they are able to grow up to 2 feet per day. They usually grow in waters 10 to 33 feet deep, in order to have enough room to thrive. They are usually found in open ocean, but smaller amounts can be found up to 300 feet out to shore. Their thallus, which looks similar to a stem, can be between 5 & 200 feet long. It is the largest algae species on planet Earth. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Marine Hall Of Distinction: Shintarō Hirase This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main months series. This series publishes on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Our marine biologist for this months article, is Shintarō Hirase, the formalizer of malacology. He has also been dubbed “Japans foremost malacologist” of the 20th Century. Shintarō Hirase is a Japanese Malacologist, who had one of the largest collections of molluscs in world history. He is most well known for his work titled “A Collection Of Japanese Shells With Illustrations & Colours”, which contains over 1,360 shells. He was a pioneer in the field of Malacology along with his Father, Yoichirō Hirase, who was also a Malacologist. Before he began in the field, Malacology was an extremely underdeveloped field in Japan. In his wake, he left an admirable legacy, as well as a tremendous effect on marine biology. In this article we will discuss his early life & education, his later life & career, & finally his awards, honourables, achievements & accomplishments. With that being said, let us delve into the life of Shintarō Hirase. His Early Life & Education Hirase was born on February 28th of 1884, at Hukura, on Awaji Island, Japan, He was born the eldest son of Yoichirō Hirase, a Malacologist & Businessman. Shortly after he was born, he moved from Awaji Island to Kyoto. It was here were his father opened his shell shop, “Hirase Shoten”. Though Hirase grew up around his fathers mollusc collection, as a young man he did not have much of an interest in shells. He graduated from Third College, & took psychology courses at Kyoto Imperial University, which is the second oldest university in Japan. In 1914 Hirase Shell Museum Opened, which was a collection of sea shells from Japans various islands gathered by Shintarō & His Father, Yoichirō. In 1914 he enrolled in a zoology course with the Faculty of Science at Tokyo Imperial University. He got his masters degree from Tokyo Imperial University in 1917, & continued to do post doctoral work studying molluscs at the university until 1922. His Later Life & Career In 1918, he began publishing essays on shellfish anatomy, taxonomy, ecology, & bivalves in general. Unfortunately soon after, Hirase Shell Museum fell onto hard times. This caused him to choose the path of being a professor, & a malacologist. While still attending his Graduate School, he began lecturing on natural sciences in Meiji University. He also began working as an instructor at Hosei University, & in Secondary Schools that are affiliated with Seikei University. As a professor, he was said to be tolerant, calm, respectful, & humane. He was said to also root many of his classes in philosophy & literature. Similar to his father, he was a man of sophisticated taste & style. He was said to enjoy music, play piano & clarinet, & to enjoy foreign novels in their purest forms. He was at the very least bilingual, & possibly a polyglot. He also enjoyed Nihonga Paintings, & purchased many of these paintings. In 1927, shortly before his death, he described Oscanius Testudinarius Hirase, a species of Hirase died while working at his desk, on a collection of shell illustrations. His last words were, “Give the cockscomb pearl mussels some water, please, so their nerves do not dry out”. This shows that even in the very end, what mattered most was his molluscs. He passed away on September 9th of 1929, at age 55, due to short kidney disease. His obituary was published in the Malacological Society of London. His collection at its largest, was 15,000 specimens. After the bombings some of his specimens were transferred to the Research Institute For Natural Resources In Tokyo, but the majority were still stored at his home. Unfortunately, due to the bombings in Japan, the majority of these specimens were completely destroyed. In 1936, he had the species Babylonia pallida Hirase & Berthella gotoi Hirase named after him. After 1948, the remainder of his collection was transferred to Research Institute for Natural Resources. Today, there are 5,000 specimens left from Hirase’s collection. In modern day, copies of his articles & collections are still available for purchase. His Awards, Honourables, Achievements, & Accomplishments He has about 6 different mollusc species named after him due to his massive impacts in the field. He was the Co-Founded the Malacological Society of Japan, along with Tokubei Kuroda, He alongside his father assembled the largest collection of Molluscs in the World. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Kajin - Shell Men” Written By Unknown & Published on the 8th of March, 2018. Published by Living Culture - Lixil. Retrieval Date: September 13th, 2023. https://livingculture.lixil.com/en/topics/assets/kaijin_3.pdf Citation No. 2: “Shintaro Hirase” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By FamousScientists.org. Retrieval Date: September 13th, 2023. https://www.famousscientists.org/shintaro-hirase/ Citation No. 3: “Shintaro Hirase Facts” Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Soft Schools. Retrieval Date: September 13th, 2023. https://www.softschools.com/facts/scientists/shintaro_hirase_facts/1895/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding The Island Of Antigua Todays article will discuss the oceans surrounding the Caribbean island of Antigua. This island makes up the country of Antigua & Barbuda. The island is approximately 185.22 Nautical/Marine miles (213.147369 miles or 343.02744 kilometers) from Venezuela. It is also approximately 1311.36 Nautical/Marine miles (1509.086137 miles or 2428.63872 kilometers) from mainland Florida. Antigua is a part of the lesser Antilles & the island group known as the Leeward islands. The etymology of the name is that Antigua means ancient in Spanish. This choice of name was most likely a remanent of the Spanish conquest of the Caribbean. This name was given to them by the Spanish when they first landed on Antigua. It is tropical & for this reason it has extreme biodiversity. Its oceans are also somewhat undiscovered. This makes it a common place to find strange & interesting marine species. It also has many interesting oceanic nutrients that say northern Caribbean countries would not have. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, the ocean acidification & climate change, & the utilization of marine resources on the island. With that being said, let us delve into the Land of the 365 Beaches. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Antigua Antigua is an island that exists just northeast of Montserrat . The actual salinity level of Antigua is undocumented. However, it is most likely between 34 & 35 parts per thousand. The reason for that is due to that being the average salinity level of the Caribbean sea. Antigua, exists in the Caribbean sea. There are also no factors that would Interfere with the salinity levels. The marshlands that exist do not release very much water, which is a reason as to the constant stability of the salinity of Antigua. The temperature of Antigua can be found on a multitude of sites, such as https://seatemperature.net, https://www.seatemperature.org, https://seatemperature.info, https://www.seatemperatu.re , & https://weather-and-climate.com. The tides are also found on those websites. They usually do not get over 2.73 feet (0.832104 meters). The deepest point within 12 Nautical/Marine miles (13.8094 miles or 22.224 kilometers) of Antigua is 2296.6 feet (700.00368 meters) deep. It does not have very many currents around it, & when currents do form they are rather predictable. The riptide is not very bad & is not present to a dangerous extent. Swimming & other recreational activities such as surfing & leisure boating often take place on the oceans surrounding Antigua. The eastern most sides of the island however, do get large waves. This is great for an activity such as surfing however it may be dangerous to an average swimmer. The water is relatively unpolluted & has incredible visibility. This additionally provides amazing views as to the marine ecosystems. Sand walls & drop offs within close proximity of shoreline are not common either. Oceanic mounts can occasionally be found off the coast of Antigua. However, these mounts are never volcanic in nature. Most of the time, the sea floor will consist of sand, rock, mud, & coral. The Most Important Marine Ecosystems Of Antigua Coral Reefed Areas Coral reefed areas are found in many places around Antigua. There are no specific large coral reefs however the southern, eastern, & northern sides of the island have many coral reefs & types of coral shelving. This however, can cause negative affects such as dead coral washing up on beaches & causing injuries to animal species. This can also disrupt the laying behaviours of turtles. These coral reefs are usually found anywhere from 5 feet deep to 40 feet deep. They are usually found off shore by a few hundred meters. However in certain areas they are found much closer to the shoreline. They can also occasionally, be spotted from harbours. The only type of coral reefs that are found are fringing coral reefs. 76 square kilometers of Antigua & Barbuda’s oceans are designated coral reefs. Seagrass Beds There is no specific place that these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually smaller animals are found here, this makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses or fish give birth. These areas are mostly found 100 to 7000 feet (30.48 meters to 2133.6 meters) off shore. However, they can be found in open ocean as well. The Most common documented seagrass species found in Antiguan waters is Halophila stipulacea. Mangrove Forests The mangrove forests are mostly on the north west area, near Hanson’s bay. There is a total of 10 square kilometers of mangrove forest near Hansons bay. These mostly consist of mangrove trees, swampland like conditions. Many animals filter in from the ocean through streams to these areas, alligators are commonly found here. Antigua does apparently, have alligators, however they do not have crocodiles. Seagrasses are commonly found in these mangrove areas as well. Nutrients are in abundance in this area. At its deepest these areas are usually 15 feet deep. The Documented Marine Flora Of Antigua Antigua is not very diverse when it comes to marine flora. There is only 1 known seagrass species found in any Antiguan waters. That species is known as Halophila stipulacea. It is an invasive species that made its way over from the Mediterranean. The Most likely way that is got to Antigua is through human introduction. Macro algae however, are a bit more plentiful. 2 species from the macro algae genus of Halimeda have been found in Antigua. These species are what is known as green algae. Green algae however, look very similar to seagrass. A unique characteristic of green algae, is that the algal body known as the thallus is composed of green calcified segments. It has calcium carbonate deposits deep in its tissues. This renders it inedible to most herbivores. There are no kelp species found nearby Antigua. Also, we will not be including coral as they are technically classifed under the kingdom of Animalia. There are no endemic marine plants to Antigua. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Antigua Antigua is incredibly biodiverse when it comes to marine fauna due to the high amounts of sheltered areas & food. Due to this, Antigua has a total of 35 marine protected areas. This totals less then 0.1% of the Antiguan & Barbudan ocean. Marine fauna often flourishes around Antigua, due to this reason there are many migratory schedules that animals have in which they live temporarily in Antigua. We unfortunately will not be discussing organisms that are single celled or that are categorized are plankton. Antigua’s appeal for animals is also that they are often extremely protected compared to in other national waters. This provides a safe domain for the creatures to live & thrive. There are also no known marine animals that are endemic to Antigua. The most notable & common marine species that are found in the oceans surrounding Antigua are: Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whale), Tursiops Truncatus (Common Bottlenose Dolphins), Stenella Longirostris (Spinner Dolphins), Eretmochelys Imbricata (Hawksbill Turtle), Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback Turtle), Chelonis Mydas (Green Turtle), Aetobatus Narinari (Spotted Eagle Rays), Hypanus Americanus (Southern Stingrays), Ocyurus Chrysurus (Yellowtail Snapper), Parrotfish of various species, Holocentrus Rufus (Longspine Squirrelfish), Enchelycore Carychroa (Caribbean Chestnut Moray Eels), Heteroconger Longissimus (Brown Garden Eels), Equetus Punctatus (Spotted Drum), (Honeycomb Cowfish), Lactophrys Triqueter (Smooth Trunkfish), Epinephelus Striatus (Nassau Grouper), Mulloidichthys Martinicus (Yellow Goat Fish), Chromis Cyanea (Blue Chromis), Chromis Multilineata (Brown Chromis), Halichoeres Garnoti (Yellow Headed Wrasse), Bothus Mancus (Peacock Flounder), Myripristis Jacobus (Black Bar Soldierfish), Halichoeres Radiatus (Puddingwife Wrasse), Carangoides Ruber (Bar Jack) & Heteropriacantus Cruentatus (Glasseye Snapper). How The Marine Resources Of Antigua Were Often Utilized Antigua has many marine resources that have been utilized in many different ways throughout the centuries. Historically, whalers often used Antigua for the purpose of hunting whales. These whales would often be used for whale oil, whale bones, & whale meat. Otherwise, commercial fishing was & still is incredibly popular due to the high density of edible fish. It is used for marine tourism as eco tourism makes up a large percent of their total GDP. Directories / Credits https://www.agrra.org/country/antigua/ https://www.agrra.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/ATG-Report-Card_2016_WebLowRes.pdf https://parkscaribbean.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Protected-Areas-Analysis-for-Antigua-and-Barbuda-2010.pdf https://www.ecomagazine.com/in-depth/the-enigmatic-seagrass https://www.fao.org/3/ca9849en/ca9849en.pdf https://abstvradio.com/alligator-search-in-antigua-continues/ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00302014 https://caribbeannewsservice.com/elkhorn-marine-conservancy-to-plant-thousands-of-corals-on-degraded-reefs-in-antigua/ https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ag/ag-nr-01-en.pdf https://seastuff.com/locations/antigua Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa