Search Results

The Basking Shark Of Barcelona (Cetorhinus Maximus) This month’s article series, will discuss the oceanic areas surrounding the Spanish city of Barcelona. We went on an expedition to Barcelona in order to do some seagrass related research & things of that nature. Results from this will be published in a new journal of ours called “The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal of Marine Biology”. It will be located on this same website & will just be published in a different area of the website. For more information please look at the article titled “Major Announcement: The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology”, published on March 17th. Barcelona is a city in Spain, located on the Mediterranean Sea. It is attached to mainland Spain & it is not apart of an island. The city is known largely for its superb beaches, beautiful artworks, & architectural features. However, Barcelona offer much more then just an exciting city, it has absolutely wonderful areas to snorkel in. Barcelona has a vast selection of marine life, this is largely due to the favourable weather conditions of the areas surrounding Barcelona. It is also extremely active marine wise, with many species being brightly coloured & high in population. For example, whale sightings are very common off the coast of Barcelona from March to October. However, there is one animal in particular that stands out compared to all else, this creature is known as the Basking Shark. The Basking shark is a species of shark found throughout the Atlantic, that can open its mouth up to a meter in diameter. It is a filter feeder which is the reason for this otherwise strange feature. What that means, is that the Basking Shark does not hunt as most other sharks do, in fact they don’t even eat fish. Basking sharks consume microscopic organisms & krill by opening their large mouths & using a suction power to pull the creatures in. Once finished, the shark will close its mouth & swallow all food. It does not have the ability swallow anything other then these organisms so there is no need to fear it. In this article, we will discuss the life of the Basking Shark, The mating practices, tactics, cycles, habits, & processes of the Basking Shark, the distribution of the Basking Shark, & finally, the scientific detailings of the Basking Shark. With that being said, let us delve into the widest-mouthed shark. The Life Of The Basking Shark The basking shark was first described in 1765 by a certain Gunnerus. It was caught in Norway & brung from Norway to Gunnerus as a specimen. They are 7.9 meters (25.9186 feet) long on average & weigh approximately 4.65 tons each. Basking sharks can live for up to 50 years, this does not change based on gender from current knowledge. The intelligence of a basking shark is somewhat understudied & little is known about their mental capacity. They seem to be friendly towards humans & not have any malicious intentions. They seem to have the same capacity of most other shark species. It is unknown how long this species itself has existed for however, the earliest fossil records of something shark-like, was from 450 million years ago during the ordovician period. Using this information, it is safe to assume that it evolved sometime after the ordovician period. They are not known to approach humans at all. They are also not aggressive towards humans whatsoever at all. This species of shark is not territorial from what it looks like as they are highly migratory & will not stay in one place. Basking sharks are extremely social creatures & are usually not seen or found alone. They will be found basking in small groups of 2-3 however they have been known to form a large group of 500 sharks. They are highly migratory creatures & often will not be very territorial. They do not sleep as we think of it, they instead have active & resting periods. During the active periods they will be active & swim about engulfing krill. During their resting periods they will not swim & be restful, they will still be awake & conscious. Being restful means they will swim to the bottom of the oceanic floor not move. It is unknown how long they have restful periods for. They can swim at speeds of 2.5 to 4 miles per hour. It has been discussed how they eat, & what they eat, however it has not been discussed how much they eat. It is unclear as to how much exactly they eat, however it is estimated at 1,000,000 individual plankton. This may way several hundred pounds. They are not cannibalistic in ant capacity whatsoever. They do not have a very high metabolism. They do not have a specific feeding time either, they will consume whenever they feel they need the sustenance. The Basking Shark has no known predators that will actively hunt them. White sharks are known to consume basking sharks remains, how it is unknown if they will actively hunt them. It is extremely unlikely that they do actively hunt them. The basking shark is a light grey colour & round. They have a long dorsal fin placed in the center of their body so this is a good identifier. They have a round & short snout as well as an extremely large mouth. Their gills present themselves as large slits on the sides of the sharks body near their snout. They are currently classified as endangered with their population decreasing. They also have, no known cultural significance to any particular population. However, they did cause a general scare during various time periods, this can be seen in that many stories of sea serpents & various other oceanic monsters, can be attributed to this creature. The Mating Practices, Tactics, Cycles, Processes, & Habits Of The Basking Shark Basking sharks will reproduce via sexual reproduction. They are not hermaphroditic in any capacity whatsoever. The females' eggs are fertilized via internal fertilization from the male. They are not monogamous creatures. The actual mating ritual that they perform is completely unknown & has not been observed. It is unclear as to what age they sexually mature at, however, it is estimated at 18. This number is unconfirmed though. This number would go for both genders. They do not appear to have a specific mating season. This species has been confirmed to lay eggs. It will take approximately 2-3 years for an egg to hatch as this is the normal gestation period. This species is ovoviviparous meaning that the mother shall hold the eggs in her womb until they are ready to hatch. The embryos will develop inside of the egg’s individually then will come out. This is a common trait among amphibious species. The eggs will develop in the mother's womb for 2-3 years then she will lay them. Soon after they will hatch & it is unclear whether the female will take part in her pups life after this. It is unknown exactly how many babies will be laid during this process. The pups are then born in the summer, as being born in this time of year gives the highest chance of survival. After this, the female will mate every 18 months to 3 years after pregnancies. It is currently unknown at what time they are the most fertile. The Distribution Of The Basking Shark The Basking shark is not exclusive to Barcelona, it is found across the Pacific & the Atlantic. From areas such as New Zealand, to Canada, to the Sea Of Japan, to the Mediterranean. They are found as deep as 2,000 meters (6561.68 feet). They are highly migratory & will travel often in their lives. This is necessary as if they stop swimming they will asphyxiate & die. They do have seasonal migration patterns however we have yet to map them completely. They will migrate to southern oceans during the winter months, this is the only known thing about their seasonal migration pattern. The Scientific Detailings Of The Basking Shark The most interesting part of the basking shark, is undoubtedly its large mouth cavity. It is able to do this as it has many bones in its mouth that allow the mouth to expand. The shark has extremely small teeth, that are all curved backwards. They have 6 rows of teeth on their upper jaw & 9 rows of teeth on their lower jaw. They seem to have 100 teeth in each row of teeth. They have 1,500 teeth in total by the time they reach maturity. These teeth are each 1 quarter of an inch long. These teeth are in the shape of a conical cusp, & each tooth looks almost identical to each other. They also have rather strange looking skeletons due to their mouth bones, as well as due to the fact that their skull is incredibly small compared to their body. Very little is known about their brain function & their intelligence. They do not have any specialized organs besides gills. Their gill slits are incredibly large. They do also possess something known as gill rakers which exist in the snout. These help with filter feeding. Their liver is humongous & accounts for approximately 25% of their total body weight. However this does end up helping with the buoyancy of the shark, as the liver is high in squalene, a low-density hydrocarbon that helps give the shark neutral buoyancy. Their phylum is known as Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. Over 60,000 species are categorized under Chordata at the time of publishing. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Chondrichthyes. This is a class of fish that are primarily composed of cartilage. This class can be compared to the class Osteichthyes, which is a class of fish who are primarily composed of bone. A few universal characteristics for any fish in the class Chondrichthyes is that they all are jawed vertebrates, they have paired fins, paired nares, scales, & a heart with chambers in a series. The Basking Shark is one of the biggest species in this class. Their sub-class is that of Elasmobranchii. Their order is that of Lamniformes. This is an order of sharks. A few universal characteristics for creatures classified within this order are that, they possess two dorsal fins, an anal fin, five gill slits, eyes without nictitating, & a mouth cavity that extends behind the eyes. Creatures from this order also usually maintain a higher body temperature then the water surrounding them. This order has the largest macropredatory shark to ever exist, the Otodus Megalodon. Their family is Cetorhinidae. This is a family of filter feeding sharks, which are commonly known as basking sharks. This family contains 3 genera, 2 of which are completely extinct. The Basking Shark, is the only discovered species that is in this family. Their genus is Cetorhinus. The Basking Shark is the only known species in this genus. Their binomial name is Cetorhinus. Directories / Credits Sea Wonder: Basking Shark | National Marine Sanctuary Foundation https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/profiles-profils/baskingshark-requinpelerin-atl- https://oceana.org/marine-life/basking-shark/ Does a Basking Shark Have Teeth? - American Oceans https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/cetorhinus-maximus/ Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors

This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter, will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however it is a separate entity. We sent 2 agents out to a small beach in Ventura County California, called Mondo’s Beach. They came back with 8 different specimens of Seagrass that were found on this beach, the results of which will be published here. Unlike the Malibu Lagoon survey, this one will not be conducted annually, & is a singular survey. The Official Seagrass Survey Of Mondo’s Beach All samples were taken on the 26th of June at between 5:39 PM & 6:31 PM. This was closest to low tide on that specific day, so the results may differ from if we took our specimens at high tide. In order of most found species to least found species the list is as follows: No. 1. Zostera Marina, No. 2. Bull Kelp, No. 3. Spongey Purple Seagrass, No. 4. Orange Pseudo Kelp, No. 5. Purple Leathery Seagrass, No. 6. Feathery Brown Seagrass, No. 7. Octopus Grass, & Finally No. 8. Ulva Lactuca (Sea Lettuce). Species No. 1: Zostera Marina (Seawrack / Common Eelgrass) Without a doubt, Zostera Marina was the most commonly found species on this beach. Additionally, it was in an incredibly high density on the beach, with mats of seagrass weighing 4 pounds or more. It was found in the highest density towards the northern side of the beach, but it was still plentiful throughout the entirety of the beach. It seems that, there were more mats of seagrass on the northern side, & more smaller specimens on the southern side of the beach. The coordinates of our specimen in particular are 34°19’15” North, & 119°22’27” West, 103° East. In the casing that we placed it in, the specimen unfortunately broke into 2 main stems. The first one measured 120 centimeters (47.2441 inches), & the other one measured at 84.5 centimeters (33.26772 inches). Species No. 2: Possibly Corallina Officinalis (Common Coraline) This species was most likely one of the third least common on Mondo’s Beach. Its density was highest towards the northern side of the beach it seems, & was very sparsely if at all found on the southern side of the beach. Our specimen of this species measured approximately at 24 centimeters (9.44882 inches) long, though it broke in transport so it is quite hard to precisely say. The exact coordinates at which our specimen was found are as follows; 34°19’15 North, 119°22’26” West, 212° South West. We could not exactly tell what kind of seagrass this was, & was could not say for certain that it is Corallina officinalis. Species No. 3: Nereocystis Luetkaena (Bull Kelp / Bullwhip Kelp / Ribbon Kelp / Bladder Wrack) This species was the second most plentiful throughout the entire beach. Some specimens were too large to fit into our vials, so we could only get the smaller specimens. This species was undoubtedly the largest species in length on the beach, & some specimens of this species measured over 6 feet long. This species still is not as common as Zostera Marina by a large margin, but it is far more plentiful than all other species on this list. It is found most densely towards the central areas of the beach, & the far north areas of the beach, & tends to be found sparsely if at all on the far south side of the beach. The coordinates for our specimen were 34°19’16” North 119°22’31” West, or 223° South West. Our specimen for this species measured approximately 57 centimeters (22.4409 inches) long. It had long flat, ridged leaves, with stems connecting them to one another. These stems occasionally have small fruit on them. Species No. 4: Unidentified White Leathery Species Of Seagrass This species was the second least common found on the beach. It was only found in mats of mainly Zostera Marina, & was not found very often. It is in the highest density on the south side of the beach, & is sparsely found if at all on the north & central side of the beach. The coordinates at which our specimen was found are 34°19’16” North 119°22°29” West, 203 South West. Our specimen for this species measured at approximately 34.5 centimeters (13.58268 inches) long. We could not pinpoint what species this was, so we are labeling it as unidentified. It had tough white leaves, with red stems connecting them all. It looked vaguely like the skin of an octopus. Species No. 5: Ulva Lactuca (Sea Lettuce) This species was the least common on the beach by a long shot. We could not find full scale leaves of it, just torn off parts of various different leaves that were caught in a clump of Zostera Marina. The coordinates at which our specimen was found are 34°19’16” North 119°22°29” West, 203 South West. Our specimen was found in the exact same mat as the (octopus grass). We could only find 2 very small traces of this species the first of which measured at 11 centimeters (4.33071 inches) long, 8 centimeters (3.14961 inches) long. Species No. 6: Macrocystis Pyrifera (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp) This species was the fourth most common species found on the beach. It looked very similar to bull kelp upon first glance, however it was orange. The exact coordinates at which our specimen of this species was found are 34°19'16” North 119°22’24” West, 147° South East. Our specimen of this species was measured at 55 centimeters (21.6535 inches) long. Species No. 7: Unidentified Brown Feathery Seagrass This species was the third most uncommon species found on the beach. This species is found most commonly on the south side of the beach, & is found sparsely if at all on the north side. The coordinates for our specimen of this species are 34°19’16” North & 119°22” 34 West. Our specimen of this species measured at approximately 6.5 inches (16.51 centimeters) in length. This specimen had long feathery brown leaves that grew from one central area, measuring at 4 to 6 inches (10.16 to 15.24 centimeters) long, each. Species No. 8: Chondracanthus Exasperatus (Turkish Towel) This species is the second most uncommonly found species found on Mondo’s Beach. It is found densely on the far south side & is sparsely found across the more central southern areas of the beach. The exact coordinates for our specimen of this species are 34°19’16” North, 119°22’33” West, 66° North East. This specimen of this species measured at approximately 10.16 centimeters (4 inches) long. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Saint Lucia Todays article will discuss the documented history of Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia is an island in the Caribbean, it exists in the lesser Antilles & is a part of the island group called the “Windward Islands”. From its closest pointoday'sT, it is 186.04 Nautical/Marine miles (214.091009 miles or 344.54608 kilometers) from mainland Venezuela. It is also 1314.27 Nautical/Marine miles (1512.434905 miles or 2434.02804 kilometers) from mainland Florida. Its history was widely dictated by the English, similar to the surrounding islands. Saint Lucia has 10 current municipalities & 150 inhabited towns. It has an incredibly rich history with multiple indigenous tribes & many wars over the course of time. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Saint Lucia as a whole, The known aboriginals of Saint Lucia, the disaster history of Saint Lucia, & finally a segment on the Saint Lucian economy. The Documented History Of Saint Lucia Before Colonization Saint Lucia was inhabited by 3 main indigenous peoples before being discovered by the Europeans. These tribes were the Arawaks, the Ciboney, & The Kalingo / Caribs. These tribes trace back to 1000 B.CC..B on Saint Lucia. The Ciboney were the first people to inhabit Saint Lucia. They most likely arrived in approximately 1000 B.C. However they did not document much & did not leave many things behind. It is not known why they left. After this, the Arawaks came from northern South America. They came between the years of 200 & 400 A.D. They used pottery for numerous things & left behind large amounts of it. Many Arawak archeological sights contain large amounts of pottery from this age. It is not fully known what the Arawaks called the island however it is believed that they called it Louanalao. This translates into “Land Of The Iguanas”. This was due to the high population density of iguanas in Saint Lucia. These Arawaks were rather peaceful & built canoes for various purposes. They often fished & learned how to make black earth. Black earth is used for agricultural purposes, it is made with a mix of charcoal & soil. This leads us to believe they had rather industrious farms. They did not wear clothes & chose to live without them. They spoke a variety of different languages. Their religious beliefs centered heavily around nature spirits & their ancestors. Every different settlement that they made had complex social structures & hierarchies. After this, the Caribs / Kalinago arrived & were not peaceful toward the Arawaks. They often fought, kidnapped, murdered, & stole from the Arawaks. They spoke many different languages, however “Island Carib” was the most popular. Their religious beliefs were relatively unknown but they were polytheistic. They also had canoes however instead of fishing, they were used as warships. These war ships could hold over 100 people & were fast enough to catch a European sailing ship. The Caribs became infamous for their ferociousness in battle. They also had a complex societal structure, however the Saint Lucian Caribs did not seem to have any kind of government. The Caribs killed off most of the male Arawaks & took the women to integrate them into Carib society. They originally called the island Hewanarau. This translates into “There where the iguanas are found”. After Colonization 16th Century Christopher Columbus may have seen the island on his fourth voyage in the year 1502 as he sailed to Martinique from the south. However, this island was not mentioned in his log so it is unknown. Juan de la Cosa a Spanish cartographer did note a land mass that was in Saint Lucia’s area on a map from 1500. However, this may have not been Saint Lucia, in which case he would have discovered it in 1504. He notes it as “El Falcon” on the map. A Spanish Cedula (order) mentions an island in the approximate area of Saint Lucia that existed within the Spanish domain. Additionally, a globe made in the Vatican in the year 1520 lists the island as Sancta Lucia. A later Spanish map from the year of 1529 lists the island as S. Luzia. After this, in the 1550’s, a french pirate by the name of François le Clerc / Jambe de Bois set up a base of sorts on the islet of Pigeon Island. His reason for doing so was that he was attacked by Spanish ships. At the time, the islet was not connected with the main isle of Saint Lucia. 17th Century In 1600, Spanish explorers arrived & officially settled the french pirates settlement, calling it Vieux Fort. This still exists as a city to this day. In 1605, a group of 67 english settlers on a vessel known as Oliphe Blossome were thrown off course from their original destination of Guyana. They ended up taking refuge on the island of Saint Lucia & starting a settlement. They were welcomed by the Carib chief known as Anthonie. Unfortunately, after only a few weeks, only 19 of the colonists were left alive. This was mainly due to attacks from the other carib chief Augraumart. After that they abandoned the settlement & fled the island. In the year of 1626, the company of Compagnie de Saint-Christopher was chartered by Cardinal Richelieu. He was the chief minister of Louis the XIII of France. His reasoning for this charter was his that he wished to colonize the area of the lesser Antilles that were between the eleventh & eighteenth parallels. In 1627, a royal patent was issued to a certain James Hay 1st Earl Carlisle by Charles The 1st Of England granting rights over to the Caribbean islands that existed between the 10° & 20° north latitude, creating a competing claim. In 1635, the company of Compagnie de Saint-Christopher was reorganized under a new patent for the Compagnie des ÎIes de I’Amerique. This gave the company all the properties & administration of the former company & the rights to continue colonizing neighboring vacant islands to Saint Lucia. There are English documents claiming that colonists from Bermuda came & settled the island in 1635. However, a French patent claims that french settlers settled the island on the 8th of March 1635. The alleged leading settler was Pierre Belain d’Esnambuc. Captain Judlee planned to establish a settlement at modern day Praslin Bay with 300-400 Englishmen. Unfortunately, they were attacked over the course of three weeks by the local Caribs. The outcome ended up being the the few remaining colonists fleeing on the 12th of October 1640. In 1642, Louis XIII of France extended the charter of with relation to Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique for 20 more years. Afterwards in 1643, du Parquet, who had become Governor of Martinique, noted that the British had abandoned the idea of colonizing Saint Lucia. With that, he began making plans for a settlement. In June 1650, he sent French explorer Louis de Kerengoan, Sieur de Rousselan & 40 Frenchmen to establish a fort at the mouth of the Rivière du Carenage. This would have been near present day Castries. As the Compagnie faced bankruptcy due to little interest from the public, du Parquet sailed to France in September 1650. They then purchased the sole proprietorship for Grenada, the Grenadines, Martinique, & what they named “Sainte-Lucie” for 41,500 dollars. The French drove off an attempted English invasion in 1659, but allowed the Dutch to build a redoubt near Vieux Fort Bay in 1654. On the 6th April 1663, the Caribs sold Saint Lucia to a man named Francis Willoughby, the 5th Baron Willoughby of Parham. He was the English governor of the Caribbean. He decided to invade the island with 1100 Englishmen & 600 Amerindians in 5 ships-of-war in 17 pirogues forcing the 14 French defenders to flee. However, the majority of the English colony succumbed to a disease. The French then took over again as the English kept failing to settle the island. However the English came back in June 1664 & fully retained possession of the isle until the 20th of October 1665 when diplomacy ended up gave the island back to France. The English decided to invade again in 1665, but disease, famine, & the Caribs viscous attacks caused them to ultimately decide to flee in January of 1666. The Treaty of Breda gave control of the island back to the French. The English raided the island in 1686, but relinquished all claims in a 1687 treaty & the 1697 Treaty Of Ryswick. 18th Century The British had their headquarters in Barbados & the French were centred on Martinique. They had both found that Saint Lucia had grown appealing for their purposes. This was after the slave-based sugar cane industry developed in 1763. During the 18th century the island changed ownership or was declared neutral territory a dozen times or more. This may have been entirely avoided if international laws on new territories existed at this time period. Even though it changed ownership the French settlements remained & the island turned into an unofficial French colony well into the 18th century. In 1722, George the I of Great Britain granted both islands of Saint Lucia & Saint Vincent to John Montagu, the 2nd Duke Of Montagu. He in turn decided to appoint a man named Nathaniel Uring who was an English merchant, sea captain & explorer as the deputy-governor. Uring went to the islands with a group of seven ships, & established settlement at Petit Carenage, which would be nearby modern day Castries. Uring was unable to get enough support from British warships or from other British settlers. This ended in him & the new colonists being promptly run out by the French. His ability to start an English colony was due to the treaty of choc which made Saint Lucia a neutral territory. A census conducted on Saint Lucia in 1730 showed 463 occupants of the island, which included just 125 Europeans, 37 Caribs, 175 slaves, & the rest were free africans or people of mixed race. The French took control of the island in 1744 for their purposes. In 1745, the island had a population of 3455, which included 2573 slaves. The increase in population by so much was most likely due to the french farming sugar cane. During the Seven Years War Britain occupied Saint Lucia in 1762, but ultimately gave the island back at the Treaty of Paris on the 10th of February 1763. Britain occupied the island again in 1778 after the Grand Battle Of Cul de Sac during the American Revolution. British Admiral George Rodney then built Fort Rodney from 1779 to 1782. In 1779 another census was conducted which showed that the island's population had increased to 19,230, which included 16,003 slaves who were working 44 sugar plantations. Due to the high density of people, the Great Hurricane Of 1780 killed about 800. The island was restored to French rule in 1784, as a consequence of the Peace of Paris. After this, it was discov that 300 plantations had been abandoned & a thousand Maroon people lived in the interior. In January 1791, during the French Revolutionary war on first coalition, the National Assembly sent four Commissaries to St. Lucia to spread the revolution philosophy. In August, the slaves began to abandon their estates & Governor de Gimat of France fled. In December 1792, Lieutenant Jean-Baptiste Raymond de Lacrosse arrived with revolutionary pamphlets, & the poor whites as well as free people of color began to arm themselves as a collective force called the patriots. On the 1st of February 1793, France declared war on England & Holland, & General Nicolas Xaiver de Ricard took over as Governor of Saint Lucia. The Convention Nationale abolished enslavement of any race on the 4th of February 1794. Unfortunately Saint Lucia fell to a British invasion led by Vice Admiral John Jervis on the 1st of April 1794. The residential area of Morne Fortune became Fort Charlotte. Soon, a patriot army of resistance known as L'Armee Francaise dans les Bois , began to fight back. This ended up in beginning the 1st Brigand War. A short time afterwards the Royal army invaded in response to the concerns of the wealthy plantation owners, who wanted to keep sugar production going. On the 21st of February 1795 a group of rebels who were led by Victor Hugues, defeated a battalion of British troops. For the next four months, a group of recently freed slaves known as the Brigands forced out by the British army. As well as every white slave-owner from the isle. The English were eventually defeated on June 19th of the same year & fled from the island. The Royalist planters fled with army, leaving the remaining now free Saint Lucians to enjoy “L’Année de la Liberté” which translates to “The year of freedom. Gaspard Goyrand, a Frenchman who was Saint Lucia's Commissary later became Governor of Saint Lucia, & proclaimed the abolition of slavery. Goyrand decision for the corrupt planters were to bring them to trial. This ended in several losing their heads on the guillotine, which had been brought to Saint Lucia with the troops. He then proceeded to reorganize the islands government. The British continued to harbour dreams of recapturing the island, these would come true in April 1796 when Sir Ralph Abercrombie & his troops attempted to capture the island. During the invasion, Castries was burned & destroyed, & after approximately one month of battles the French surrendered at Fort Charlotte on the 25th of May 1796. General Moore was elevated to the position of Governor of Saint Lucia by Abercrombie & was left with 5,000 troops to complete the task of subduing the entire isle. A British Brigadier General John Moore was appointed Military Governor on the 25th of May 1796, & engaged in the Second Brigand War. Some Brigands began to surrender in 1797, when promised they would not be returned to slavery. Final freedom & the end to hostilities came with total Emancipation in the year of 1838. 19th Century The 1802 Treaty of Amiens caused the isle to be restored to French control, & at this time it was decided by Napoleon Bonaparte to reinstate slavery. The British regained the island in June of 1803, when British Commodore Samuel Hood defeated French Governor Brigadier General Antoine Noguès. The island was officially ceded to Britain in 1814. Additionally in 1838, Saint Lucia was incorporated into the British Windward Islands administration, which at the time was headquartered in Barbados. This lasted until 1885, when the capital was moved to the main island of Grenada. 20th Century During the Battle Of The Caribbean World War 2, a German U-boat vessel attacked & sank two British battleships in the Castries harbour on the 9th of March 1942. Increasing self-government has been marked as the most liberating thing for Saint Lucia's 20th-century history. A 1924 constitution gave the island its first form of representative government, with a minority of elected members in the previously all nominated legislative council. Universal adult suffrage was introduced in 1951, & elected members became a majority of the council. Ministerial government was introduced in 1956, & in the year 1958 Saint Lucia joined the short lived West Indies Federation, a semi-autonomous dependency of the United Kingdom. When the federation collapsed in 1962, due to Jamaica's withdrawal, a smaller federation was briefly attempted. After the failure of that federation, the United Kingdom & the 9 windward & leeward islands of Grenada, Saint Vincent, Dominica, Antigua, Saint Kitts, Saint Nevis, Anguilla & Saint Lucia developed a novel form of cooperation called associated statehood. In 1957, bananas officially exceeded sugar as a major export crop. As an associated state of the United Kingdom from 1967 to 1979, St. Lucia had full responsibility for internal self government but left its external affairs and defence responsibilities to the United Kingdom. This interim arrangement ended on February 22, 1979, when St. Lucia achieved complete independence from the United Kingdom. The Aboriginals Of Saint Lucia The Kalingo / Carib Indigenous Peoples The Caribs of Saint Lucia were an indigenous Amerindian of the Caribbean lesser Antilles. They are also known as the Kalingo or Kalina. They also lived through South America. They spoke a language that is modernly known as Island Carib which is classified as a highly endangered language. They were one of the least peaceful tribes of the Caribbean. They had many warlike tactics & were believed to have mandatory combat training. They were taller, bulkier, & stronger then the Arawaks due to the emphasis of being a warrior & being able to defend their home. They utilized their marine resources often & had a strong fishing industry. Fish was one of the most common foods, they also were believed to have bred some fish. They had large boats which were most similar to a modern day Canoe, these boats could hold up to 12 persons. However, their largest warships could hold up to 100 persons. These boats looked similar to a modern day dug out canoe. However, they also had the ability to use & build sails. They used these to raid the Arawaks as well as to fish. They also utilized the ocean in other ways often. They fought with the other tribes of The lesser Antilles such as the Arawaks who were relatively peaceful. They hunted mammals as well. They revered the bones of their elders or family members & they burnt off fat from their enemies or prisoners of war during battle rituals. They were labelled as cannibals & savages by the Spanish & British on their individual conquests, this was in an effort to justify conquering their lands & enslaving them. The modern day word cannibal, originates from the word Carib due to their alleged cannibalistic practices. They invented certain types of primitive barbecues as well which they most likely used to barbecue the Arawaks. However, if they were cannibalistic they did not consume the entire body. Allegedly, their reasoning for this was that if they consumed a little bit of their enemy after they were dead, they would assume the characteristics of that person. Also, there is evidence to believe that early Caribs were not cannibals. They were on average approximately 5 feet 5 inches. They had a brown hue to their skin similar to that of a modern day Latin American person. They did not appear to wear clothing of any kind. The women would paint their skin with a red dye known as Roucou which is made from the extract of the seeds of the Achiote tree. The women also circled their eyes with black pigment. The male’s would also painted their bodies and on occasion wore feathered headdresses, jewelry & piercings of all kinds through their lips, and large hoop jewelry through their noses. Nose piercings were fairly common among both genders. The male’s also wore the Caracoli which was a necklace of small bones along with the teeth of defeated enemies from which a crescent-shaped bone carved ornament was suspended. The Caracoli necklace was worn to represent the courage of the wearer, it was typically worn by men & there isn’t much evidence that it was worn by women. The women also commonly lived in different houses from the men. Arts were common among the Caribs. Basket weaving was a common type of art that was done both for function & for art. Pottery was quite common among Caribs as well. They had many different structural styles of pottery. It is also important to note that most men spoke Island Carib languages, however women spoke mostly Arawakan languages. They often used bow & arrows when hunting or fighting. This weaponry unfortunately was not very helpful during the initial British Invasion. However, their boats were. They were infamous for using one of their war ships to catch European boats. This is one of the main reasons as to why Saint Lucia wasn’t colonized for such a long time. They did not have a social or societal construct & did not have any form of government. Little is known about their religion however it is believed that they practiced polytheism. The Arawak Indigenous Peoples The Arawak Indigenous peoples existed throughout the lesser Antilles & heavily throughout northern South America. They were also known as the Taino people. They spoke many different dialects of Arawaken languages. They were quite peaceful & often avoided to engage in combat. They mostly only fought in defence or if they were being directly threatened. They often did not fight with other Arawak populations. They often practiced farming of corn, beans, pepper, sweet potatoes, ground nuts, & cassava. They also practiced fishing with nets & spear fishing. They used weaving techniques to build the nets. They also bred their own fish in individual ponds. They hunt any animals that were available using spears, bows, & blow guns. They however, did not use the pelts to make clothes. Most of the time Arawaks stood naked, with men occasionally wearing loincloths. The women wore short skirts & beaded shell necklaces. They also did not make shoes of any kind. On occasions, they would paint their bodies various colours such as black, white, or red. They were described as being of medium height by Columbus, which most likely means approximately 5 feet & 3 inches. They also generally were quite slim in build. Their skin was a dark tanned colour. Their hair was a black colour & was corse. They often wore jewellery & ornaments on their neck, ears, lips, & noses. These ornaments varied in material however they were often made with clay, shell, or cotton. Some of these ornaments were braided into hair & used as hair pieces as well. They did have social & societal constructs, with each individual group of Arawaks having a chief. For fun & religious purposes, they had festivals. These festivals entailed singing, dancing, & eating food with the community. They had instruments such as wooden gongs, reed pipes, & certain types of drums. They also had a kind of primitive oven which was used to bake small flat cakes. Games were also a common past time of them, one game they invented was a ball game called Batos. The Ciboney Indigenous Peoples The Ciboney indigenous peoples lived all throughout the Caribbean. They lived throughout Cuba & as well as the greater & lesser Antilles. They were also known as the Siboney. Their language was unknown & it was a language was an isolate. They often stayed out of the way & lived on the coast lines. Their ambitions in relation to war & peace are unknown. They did not farm anything to our knowledge, instead opting to hunt & gather their supplies. They did not write anything down, so extremely little is known about them as the majority of them were gone before the Europeans arrived. Some of their primary sources of food were shellfish, turtles, & certain available island rodents. They also lacked in arts such as pottery & weaving. They may have originated from southern America in the areas of modern day Venezuela. If they were, they would have migrated to up to Cuba. Alternatively, they may have originated from the southern areas of modern day Florida. However, they did not have very good maritime technologies. The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters That Affected Saint Lucia No.1 Hurricane Tomas Hurricane Tomas was the 19th hurricane of the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season. It was a category 2 hurricane. It affected the greater & lesser Antilles. 44 people suffered fatal injuries due to a direct cause of the hurricane, 8 of which were on Saint Lucia. It also intensified a cholera outbreak in Haiti. It caused 463.4 million USD dollars in damages in 2010. Adjusted for inflation, that would modernly be 633.74 million USD. It lasted from October 29th 2010 to November 11th 2010. No.2 Hurricane Janet Hurricane Janet was the most powerful tropical cyclone of the 1955 Atlantic hurricane season. It is also one of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes on record, & was the first category 5 hurricane name to be retired. It was a category 5 hurricane. It affected most northern Caribbean countries & mainland Mexico. It caused over 1,023 deaths to occur directly from it. There is unfortunately no indirect death toll. It cost 65.8 million USD in 1955. Adjusted for inflation that would be, 731.69 million USD. It lasted from the 21st of September 1955 to the 30th of September 1955. No.3 Hurricane Allen Hurricane Allen was the second tropical cyclone of the 1980 Atlantic Hurricane season. It was also the 5th most intense Atlantic hurricane in terms of barometric pressure. It was a category 5 hurricane. 269 direct fatalities were caused a a result of the hurricane, 6 of which were on Saint Lucia. It affected the entire Caribbean, Texas, & Mexico. It caused 1.57 billion USD in damages in 1980. Adjusted for inflation that would be 5.68 billion USD. It lasted from July 31st 1980 to August 11th 1980. No.4 Plane Crash On Mount Gimie A plane crash occurred on October 29th 1973 at Mount Gimie. The aircraft was a Britten-Norman Islander. There were 4 total fatalities & there were 0 survivors. There were 3 passengers & 1 crew member on board. The twin engine plane struck a slope on Mount Gimie at 950 meters (3116.8 feet) high at night. The plane was absolutely destroyed. The wreckage was found one day later & all aboard were already dead. Saint Lucia’s Economy & Public Stock Market Saint Lucia is economically stable which, gives it its safe reputation. They largely export crops, clothing, electronics, electrical components, & beverages. Their largest industry is tourism. Agriculture accounts for 3% of GDP & for 20% of all jobs. Their Banana industry is slowly declining due to cheaper banana exports from South & Central America. The avocado industry however, is slowly & slightly on the rise. The isle is considered to have the most diverse manufacturing industry in the eastern Caribbean. Their GDP for the year of 2021 was 1.787 billion USD. Their currency is XCD or the eastern Caribbean dollar. Their GDP per capita is 9,816 USD. This has steadily risen throughout the years. Their inflation rate as of 2021 is 3.8% which is higher then in 2019. Their GDP by sector is, 2.2% agricultural, manufacturing / industry 10.9%, & services 86.9%. Their main stock market is the Eastern Caribbean Securities Exchange or the ECSE. This stock market has 13 listings as of 2023. Directories / Credits https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arawak https://www.britannica.com/topic/Carib https://www.stlucia.org/en/discover-saint-lucia/history-culture/ https://www.britannica.com/place/Saint-Lucia/History http://www.geographia.com/st-lucia/lchis01.htm http://saintluciamissionun.org/about-saint-lucia/ https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Saint_Lucia.html https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/24/archeology-caribbean-carib-people-cannibalism-colonial-history-wrong https://www.embassyofstlucia.org/history-of-saint-lucia https://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/media/Documents/International/Caribbean/World-Read-Aloud-Day/The-Arawaks-or-Tainos-First-Aid-Reader-E.pdf https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ciboney https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/AA/00/06/19/61/00547/15-25.pdf https://www.baaa-acro.com/country/saint-lucia Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa. ReplyForward

The History Of The Norwegian Archipelago Of Svalbard Todays article will discuss the history of the Svalbard as a whole. It is currently owned by the country of Norway. It is approximately 366.83 Nautical/Marine miles (422.140425 miles or 679.36916 Kilometers) from the mainland areas of Norway. Svalbard’s largest city is Longyearbyen. Svalbard was discovered during the golden age of dutch exploration, this gives it a rich & interesting history. For example, at one point it was disputed if Svalbard should have been ruled by multiple countries at the same time. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Svalbard as a whole, Svalbard known aboriginals, the disaster history of Svalbard , & finally a segment on the Svalbard economy. The Documented History Of Svalbard Before Dutch Colonization / Discovery Unfortunately, it is inconclusive as to when humans actually appeared on any of the Svalbard islands. A Swedish archeologist known as Hans Christiansson found tools made from flint & slate. He originally Identified them as being from approximately 3000 B.C. However, this may be in accurate as no other evidence of human activity was found. A later analysis on the leftover lithic material from these tools concluded that they were not made in the stone age era. It was proposed by Norwegian historians that that Norse seamen had found Svalbard in 1194. This claim is based on Icelandic annals that found something known was Svalbarði after sailing from Iceland. However, it is not known if it was referencing something other then modern day Svalbard. The exact location of what they called Svalbarði is unknown. It has been hypothesized whether or not the Russian ethnographic group known as the “Pomors” visited Svalbard in the early 15th or possibly 14th century. It is extremely likely that they did as Svalbard was untouched & had many resources that they would have normally been unable to find. However, there is no current solid evidence that would prove their arrival at that point. Seafarers from viking eras may have known that bear island existed as well as other areas of Svalbard. However this is not backed by concrete evidence. If the Vikings did discover Svalbard it would most likely have been in 1194. The reason that this is believed is that something named “Svalbarði” is mentioned in a few viking chronicles. After Colonization 16th Century Svalbard was first documented by the dutch on June 16th 1596 by William Barentsz, a dutch sea explorer. The island that was first discovered, was Spitsbergen. There were 2 failed expeditions that attempted at finding Svalbard before this in 1594 & 1595. There were 2 ships involved in this discovery, the captains being Jacob Van Heemsherk & Jan Cornelisz Rijp. The overseer of the expedition was Barentsz. It was argued by the 3 whether or not they wished to map the north coast of Spitsbergen. Ultimately, it was decided by Jan Cornelisz Rijp that he wished to sail to Spitsbergen while the other 2 sailed on to Novaya Zemlya. It is important to mention, that the original purpose of this expedition was not to discover Svalbard but was to discover an entrance to the North Sea. When Rijp arrived he documented it as Het Nieuwe Land. This translates from dutch into english as “The New Land”. From the annals made during this discovery, the marine resources of the island were not noted by Rijp or any of the others. Nor were any of the geological characteristics, or approximate size. Maps of these islands later went on to be published over time. The most important were of Spitsbergen. It is important to note, that at the time of Svalbard being found it did not fall under any jurisdiction or sovereignty. 17th Century The first hunting expedition on Svalbard was led by the english & took place on Bjørnøya / Bear Island, Bjørnøya is the southern most island of Svalbard. The expeditions was was organized by a company known as the Muscovy Trading Company. This expedition was led by a certain Steven Bennet in the year of 1604. They had extreme lack of experience killing walruses which was most likely due to the lack of walruses around England & surrounding areas. This led to them only being able to kill under one thousand of them. The following year the original group of hunters returned & were more successful. This returned annually until they unfortunately caused local extinction of the walrus. The population of the walrus has been in recovery since then. Later a man named Jonas Poole reported seeing a "great store of whales" off Spitsbergen (an island that composed the archipelago of Svalbard). The exact species of these whales is unknown however it was most likely the bowhead whale. This sparked a frenzy of whalers flocking to the island to find whale oil. This prompted the the Muscovy Trading Company to send a whaling expedition to the island under command of Jonas Poole & Tomas Edge in the year of 1611. This group of whalers made a base camp on the island of Spitsbergen. At this point it was made clear that the bowhead whale was around the archipelago & it was in abundance. The Muscovy Trading Company then decided to hire people from the Basque ethnographic group to hunt the bowhead whale. It is important to note that they did not only hunt whales from this point on. They also hunted many of the land animals for food, fur, oils, & other different purposes. This was because due to the areas that the basque people live, they get more experience with hunting the bowhead whale. However unfortunately the 2 ships holding the experts crashed off the coast of Svalbard. The crews were later rescued by English interlopers who were going to Svalbard. In the year of 1612, the Muscovy Trading Company sent a new expedition for the purpose of whaling, but they were surprised to be met by both Dutch & Spanish whalers. They then claimed exclusive rights to Spitsbergen on behalf of England for the purpose of whaling & sent away the other foreign whalers. In the year 1613, seven armed English ships were sent to Spitsbergen which caused many Dutch, Spanish, & French whaling vessels to depart from the isle. By this point Spitsbergen was an international whaling base, so the english suddenly claiming exclusive rights caused large disruption in certain economies. Another effect was that England ended up causing a lot of political conflict among main international whaling companies. The Dutch refused to recognize the english claim on reclusive rights, claiming the mare liberum principle. The mare liberum principle is based off a latin book about international ocean laws. Christian IV of Denmark claimed that the Denmark-Norway Union had the rights to all of Northern Sea view of Greenland Being an old Norwegian tax-land. England offered to purchase the rights from Denmark-Norway in 1614. However the pair refused this offer, after which the English reverted to their exclusive rights claim. In 1615, the Denmark-Norway Union sent three man-o-war ships to collect taxes from English & Dutch whalers. The union felt it was owned those taxes, however all whalers refused to pay. This issue ended in a political deadlock, with the Denmark–Norway union & England both claiming sovereignty over Svalbard. The opposing side, France, the Netherlands, & Spain claimed it to be void of rule under the mare liberum principle. In the year 1614, the English & Dutch partitioned the island, as the political tension was not worth continuing as it was negatively effecting the economy of both groups. Additionally in the year 1614, the Netherlands created Noordsche compagnie as a whaling cartel After the Muscovy Company fell into financial difficulties. The Noordsche Compagnie got managed to kick out the English whalers after a hard & tedious fight. They then established themselves in the northwestern corner of Spitsbergen & only permitted a limited Danish presence for the sole purpose of whaling. The English decided to whale further south, while the French were allocated to the north coast & along the open sea. Later spanning over the 1630s, the situation stabilized & there were only a limited number of aggressive whaling related incidents that were caused by the original tension. Initially, all nations hired the expert Basque whalers, although this practice gradually disappeared after their knowledge was learnt by their fellow European whalers. The whaling method was based on landing the whale, where it would be partitioned & the blubber boiled. With a high concentration of whales close to land, this method was efficient, as the companies would split the crew between the land station & hunting. The most famous land station from this area at the time was known as the Dutch Smeerenberg on Amsterdam Island which is a part of the Svalbard archipelago. This land station had up to 200 people employed at any time. Due of the high costs involved, only larger international companies conducted whaling. By the late 17th century there were between 200 & 300 whaling ships at any given time nearby the isle & in excess of 10,000 whalers around Spitsbergen. The first overwintering was accidentally experienced by an English group in Bellsund 1630 to 1631. The first planned overwintering was achieved by the Noordsche Compagnie in 1633 to 1634. In the year 1623, the first clear map of Spitsbergen was printed by Willem Janszoom Blaeu. This is currently our oldest known map of Spitsbergen. This century involved the most use of Svalbard as in later years many more international laws pertaining to whaling were put in place after this. 18th Century In approximately 1728, a revised map of Spitsbergen was published, this map was quite helpful to many sailors or pioneers who wanted to visit the isle. The first charted scientific expedition to Svalbard, specifically Spitsbergen, took place in 1764 & 1766. It was named Čičagov. It passed Svalbard in an unsuccessful effort to find a nearby route to the Northern Sea. A later second expedition was organized by the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom & it was led by Constantine John Phipps, a baron & English explorer as well as royal naval officer. It took place in the year of 1773. Unfortunately, both piloted ships known as the HMS Carcass (infernal class bomb vessel) & the HMS Racehorse / Thunder (discovery ship) got stuck due to ice around Sjuøyane. On this expedition zoological, botanical, & water samples were taken & measured in their respective aspects. After this, scientific exploration of this island drastically increased. This century had the most furthering of scientific knowledge about Svalbard. The most extensive surveys were conducted by William Scoresby, a English scientist, whaler, arctic explorer, & clergyman. He published several scientific papers about Svalbard which drastically expanded the scientific knowledge of Svalbard. The other major scientist was Baltazar Mathias Keilhau a Norwegian geologist & mountain pioneer. In this century many miners were also attracted to Svalbard due to its untouched minerals. Hunters also began taking note of the island for its exotic animals which would often be used for fur. 19th Century It was in this era that Swedish exploration began to appear more frequently. This was mostly due to Swedish Sven Ludvig Lovén marine biologist who conducted the first nautical Swedish expedition to Svalbard in 1837. He later went on to pioneer Swedish scientific exploration for the last half of the 19th century. A few other scientists also dedicated their research to the different areas of the archipelago. These most noted of these scientists are Otto Torell a Swedish geologist & naturalist, & Adolf Erik Nordernskiöld also a Swedish geologist & naturalist. Another result of Swedish scientific was the first interior map of Spitsbergen to be printed by Martin Conway. A french scientific expedition took place on the island in 1838 to 1839. This expedition was carried out by the french naval ship Recherche. This was unusual as most scientific expedition took place in the 17th century. That expedition resulted in multiple publications in many nautical & other fields as well as the construction of an observatory. Unfortunately we do not know whether that observatory is still standing or not. After this point not much nautical research was conducted however Svalbard started to be used to attempt to conduct air expeditions to the north pole. These experiments & expeditions were mostly conducted in the 1890’s. Most namely out of all of these The Andrée’s Arctic Balloon expedition was carried out with Svalbard as a starting point. It was conducted in 1897 it completely & utterly failed. In 1872, Alfred Gabriel Nathrost established the small town of Kapp Thordsen for the purpose of phosphorite & coal mining. Unfortunately, this did not work & the settlement was slowly abandoned. However, industrial mining did come back as a large amount of coal miners came to continue their endeavours. The first commercial company to begin mining on Svalbard areas was known as John Munroe Longyear’s Mining Company. From that a mining city was formed which later became what is now known as Longyearbyen. 20th Century Throughout the 1910’s & to some extent the early 1920’s coal was extremely profitable & was mined constantly on Spitsbergen. During the 1st world war, Norway began to take note of the large coal supply Svalbard was accumulated at a rapid pace. It was at this point that Norway finally decided to establish more mines in Ny-Ålesund in 1916. Many more things were discovered in this century as well as a general advancement of technology so this made more things achievable in arctic exploration. 4 more attempts between the years of 1925 & 1928 were made to launch an aircraft to the north pole with humans inside of it. These aircrafts all took off from the village of Ny-Ålesund. One of the aircrafts used for one of he first attempts was known as the flying boat, which was invented by Roald Amundsen. The flying boat is a kind of fixed-winged sea plane with a hull that allows it to land on water. These attempts all failed. Svalbard was initially unaffected by the Nazi German Occupation of Mainland Norway on 9 April 1940. Nazi Germany at the time most likely did not think of Svalbard having any importance. However, following the German attack upon the Soviet Union Svalbard became of strategic importance to secure supplies between the Allies of the 2nd world war. This was good due to the usual unimportance of the archipelago meaning it would most likely to not arouse suspicion. At first, the Soviet Union proposed Soviet–British occupation of the archipelago, but this was rejected by the Norwegian government-in-exile. Instead, an evacuation of all Norwegian & Soviet settlements were carried out by Operation Gauntlet, which took place between August 25th & September 3rd 1941. With the island evacuated, German troops occupied Longyearbyen on Spitsbergen , where they decided to build an airstrip & weather station. In May 1942, a Norwegian expedition was sent to liberate the island; they were attacked by German aircraft, but were able to set up a garrison in Barentsburg. The German outpost was subsequently abandoned. The Germans, presumably underestimating the Allied forces' size, initiated Operation Zitronella. Along with nine destroyers, the battleships Tirputz, the Scharnhorst were sent to Isfjorden where they leveled Barentsburg, Grumant & Longyearbyen. Sveagruva was bombed in an air raid in 1944. The Germans established a weather station on Hopen, which was taken over by Norway after world war 2 ended. 21st Century In 2008, the Svalbard seed vault is opened by the Norwegian government. The Norwegian seed vault has an extensive collection of all discovered seeds of all discovered plants. It is a kind of gene bank that protects against total extinction of many different kinds of plants. Its official website is https://www.seedvault.no/ . It is 1 floor in size. The Documented Aboriginals Of Svalbard It is currently unknown whether there were people who largely inhabited Svalbard before it was reached by the dutch. The Pomors may have visited however there is no hard evidence & if they did they did not stay for a very long time. Unfortunately if there were aboriginals their culture was most likely lost to time & will likely not ever be recovered in its entirety. The Most Destructive Man Caused & Natural Disasters That Have Affected Svalbard No.1 Andrée’s Arctic Balloon Expedition Of 1897 This was a balloon expedition, it was done an effort to make it to north pole however it failed & crash landed on white island. There were 3 members aboard the balloon with those members being known as: S. A. Andrée, Knut Frænkel, & Nils Stringberg. The leader of this group of scientists was Andrée. This occurred in July of 1897. A hydrogen balloon was delivered to Svalbard from Paris without being tested for security. The balloon showed obvious stress early on in the expedition however Andrée carried on in an effort to power through it. The technique that was used to steer the balloon in any capacity was ineffective & the balloon could not be controlled. The balloon was also leaking hydrogen & possibly had other mechanical however they were all left unacknowledged by Andrée. After take off the balloon quickly lost hydrogen causing them to crash on White Island on pack ice. The crash left them relatively unscathed however they were unequipped & inappropriately clothed for such weather. Unfortunately, they could not get help & all of the group sadly perished on the island due to the crash. The harsh October winter had slowly been closing in & they could not survive in such frigid conditions. Svalbard’s Economy Svalbard does not have a very large economy due to it not being a large exporter & due to its arctic location. Its main current industries are coal mining, tourism, & research. The currency that is used on Svalbard is the Norwegian Krone or NOK. Property on Svalbard is incredibly hard to get due to the fact that it is incredibly unique. Svalbard has a lower income tax compared to mainland Norway. The research portion is mostly in laboratories & experiments. The average income is 23% percent higher then mainland Norway. The average salary for a working person on Svalbard is 494,700 NOK. Total Timeline Of Important Historical Events 14th century - The Russian Pomors Possibly visited Svalbard however it is unclear. 1594 - Failed attempt at finding Svalbard. 1595 - Failed attempt at finding Svalbard. June 16th 1596 - Spitsbergen & Bjørnøya are discovered by the Dutch explorer William Barentz. It was promptly named Het Nieuwe Land. 1604 - The Muscovy Trading Company organizes a hunting expedition to Spitsbergen, an island of Svalbard. This ended with the local extinction of walruses that was caused by their hunting. 1611 - The Muscovy Trading Company sends a whaling expedition back to Svalbard for their purposes. This time the whalers made an official base camp. 1612 - The Muscovy Trading Company sent another whaling expedition with the expectation that no foreign whalers would be there, however they were there. 1613 - England sent on the Muscovy trading companies behalf, 7 armed naval ships to make sure no other foreign whalers came. This caused many foreign vessels to end up leaving soon after arrival. 1614 - England offers to purchase the rights to the island from the Denmark-Norway Union. This offer was refused. 1614 - The english & the dutch partition the island of Spitsbergen due to political tension. 1614 - The Dutch created Noordsche compagnie as a whaling cartel After the Muscovy Company fell into financial difficulties. 1615 - The Denmark-Norway Union sends 3 man-o-war ships to collect taxes from foreign whalers. Upon arrival of these ships, all whalers refused to pay any taxes. 1623 - The first clear map of Spitsbergen is printed by Willem Janszoom Blaeu. 1630 & 1631 - The first overwintering was experienced by the English. 1728 - A clearer, revised map of Spitsbergen is printed & published. This became incredibly useful. 1764 & 1766 - The first Russian chartered scientific expedition takes place. It is called the Čičagov. 1773 - An expedition took place which was conducted by the royal navy of the United Kingdom. This ended with many samples being taken & many scientific publications being tied directly to this expedition. 1837 - The first Swedish nautical expedition that was for Svalbard takes place. 1838 & 1839 - A french scientific expedition takes place ofd the coast of Svalbard. 1872 - A small town known as Kapp Thordsen gets settled for phosphorite mining. This unfortunately fails & leads to the settlement being abandoned. 1897 - Andrée’s Arctic Balloon Expedition takes place & fails. 1916 - Coal mining becomes popular in Svalbard & the mainland Norway government begin to notice the large amount of coal Svalbard has accumulated. This leads to Norway establishing a coal mining operation near the small town of Ny-Älesund. 1925 to 1928 - 4 attempts at launching an aircraft to reach the north pole are made. All attempts fail. April 9th 1940 - Nazi German occupation of Norway happens, Svalbard is initially unaffected but later becomes a major distribution point of supplies between the Allies. May 1942 - An attempt is made to liberate Svalbard however it fails. 26th Of February 2008 - The Svalbard Seed Vault is completed & opens. Directories / Credits https://global.hurtigruten.com/destinations/svalbard/inspiration/a-brief-history-of-svalbard/ https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1922/a-history-of-svalbard/ https://oceanwide-expeditions.com/to-do-amp/experiences/spitsbergens-history https://www.seedvault.no/ https://www.lifeinnorway.net/svalbard-history/ spitsbergen-svalbard.comhttps://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com › ...History - Spitsbergen | Svalbard https://www.chimuadventures.com/blog/2018/12/history-of-svalbard/?amp=1 https://dbpedia.org/page/Operation_Gauntlet https://www.canadiansoldiers.com/history/operations/operationgauntlet.htm https://dbpedia.org/page/Operation_Zitronella http://www.warcovers.dk/greenland/zitronella.htm Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Todays article will discuss the oceans that surround the Caribbean island of Saint Lucia. From its closest point it is 186.04 Nautical/Marine miles (214.091009 miles or 344.54608 kilometers) from mainland Venezuela. It is also 1314.27 Nautical/Marine miles (1512.434905 miles or 2434.02804 kilometers) from mainland Florida. It exists in the Caribbean & is one of the safest Caribbean islands to visit. It has a beautiful a bustling ecosystem that is full of colour & many different strange species. Since it is in a tropical area & also it has many oceanic nutrients, it is incredibly appealing to many species for all sorts of purposes. This makes it incredibly biodiverse. It is in the lesser Antilles & is a part of the windward islands. Its oceans are tropical & rather warm giving it a lower oxygen concentration. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources on the island. With that being said let us delve into the paradise isle of Saint Lucia. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Saint Lucia Saint Lucia exists within the Atlantic ocean meaning that the salinity level is likely higher then in any other ocean. The island is located just south of the french island of Martinique & north of Saint Vincent. The actual salinity level has not been released to the public domain. However, it can be assumed that it is between 35.5 & 34.5 parts. The temperatures for Saint Lucia can be found on a variety of websites, however this is the simplest website to navigate https://www.surf-forecast.com. The tidal chart can also be found there. The waves usually never get over 3 feet (0.9144 meters) tall. In that website you may choose whether you would like to see the temperature chart for pigeon point or Commaret point. The deepest point within 5 Nautical/Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) is 3,280.8 feet (999.744 meters) deep. There are not strong currents or any kind of harsh riptide around Saint Lucia. This makes it an ideal swimming & scuba diving area. Scuba diving & snorkelling are common recreational activities that are seen here. However it is advised to listen to any coast guard warnings that are put out at the time. It is also advised to avoid disturbing the marine life. Water pollution overall is not bad & is constantly being improved. There also have not been any oil spills off the coast of Saint Lucia in recent years. There is less then 1 square kilometer of area that is marine protected by Saint Lucia. It ranks 108 on the list of countries with marine protected areas. It is not clear how much of this countries ocean floor has been mapped or discovered. The bottom of the ocean usually consists of coral, clay, sand, rock, and / or mud. The Most Important Marine Ecosystems Of Saint Lucia Coral Reefs Coral reefed areas are found in many places around Saint Lucia. There are no specific large coral reefs however the southern side of the island has many coral reefs. This however, can cause negative affects such as dead coral washing up on beaches & causing injuries to animal species. These coral reefs are usually found anywhere from 5 feet deep to 40 feet deep. They are usually found off shore by a few hundred meters. However in certain areas they are found much closer to the shoreline. A factor as to why this might be is that any coral reefs within 100 meters of shoreline are protected by the Saint Lucian Government. Under that law, 44% of the Saint Lucian coast is designated as a coral reef & is protected. The overall health of these reefs are well. 30% of these reefs are in good condition meaning that resources are abundant & they do not require human interference. 35% of these reefs are are in fair condition & do not require human interference conservation wise, however may not fully recover if human impacts are not minimized. Finally, 35% of these reefs are in poor condition & may not recover if human impacts are not minimized & there is no human interference for conservation. Unfortunately, the actual species of these coral are not known. Underwater Caves Oceanic caves are quite common around Saint Lucia, with the most notable being Bat Cave. Many smaller organisms live in underwater caves then out in open ocean. An organism that often does this, is a sea cucumber. Larger animals are not often found here due to there being tight spaces & not enough food to support them. Seagrasses also do not often grow here. Many fish can be found perusing throughout these types of caves looking for food or other things. These caves are mainly found along the western & northwestern sides of the island. It is also important to note that these areas are occasionally not fully underwater & also have dry areas. Seagrass Beds There is no specific place that these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually smaller animals are found here, this makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses give birth. It consists mostly of seagrass. The Documented Marine Flora Of Saint Lucia The overall Documented marine flora of Saint Lucia is incredibly diverse & colourful due to the high amount of nutrients in the ocean water. However this does not include seagrass. Many plants have been documented to do something very strange in the lesser Antilles, that thing is that they seem to all be migrating south. This may be due to over fishing or lack of nutrients however the real reason for this is unknown. Unfortunately, their is not very much seagrass diversity along Saint Lucia. There are 3 documented species of seagrass that are found along Saint Lucia. These species are known as Thalassia testudinum (Turtle Grass), Syringodium filiforme (Manatee Grass), & finally Halodule wrightii (Shoal Grass). They are found in an incredibly high concentration off the eastern coast compared to the western coast which they are found infrequently & when found are much smaller. This may be due to the western coast being less maintained then the eastern coast. They are highly diverse when it comes to algae species. Species from the algae genera of Avrainvillea, Udotea, Penicillus, Halimeda, Amphiroa, Sargussum, & Caulerpa can all be traced to Saint Lucian waters. There are not any current issues with invasive marine plant species. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Saint Lucia Many types of marine fauna enjoy Saint Lucia as a sanctuary for living & giving birth to their young. Saint Lucia’s oceans are often protected & there is increased fines for destruction of the oceanic areas. Many creatures migrated from South American areas towards the southern lesser Antilles. This may be a contributing factor as to why Saint Lucia has such extreme biodiversity. Unfortunately, we will not be discussing single celled creatures, bacteria, or amoeba. Saint Lucia appeals especially to marine mammals due to the fact that they can safely give birth to their young & mate in this area. Some of the most notable & important animals that live around Saint Lucia are listed as the following: Hippocampus Reidi (slender sea horse), frogfish of various species, Pomacanthus Paru (french angelfish), Bothus Mancus (peacock flounder), moray eels of various species, Equetus Punctatus (spotted drum), Cardisoma Carnifex (giant mangrove crab), parrotfish of various species, lion fish of various species, Mobula Birostros (giant oceanic manta ray), Dactyloptera Voltians (atlantic flying gurnard), damselfish of various species, Myrichthys Ocellatus (golden spotted eels), Carcharhinus Leucas (bull shark), Megaptera Novaeangliae (humpback whales), & Physeter Macrocephalus (sperm whales). How The Marine Resources Of Saint Lucia Were Utilized Saint Lucian resources have been utilized in many ways, however commercial fishing was the most common use throughout history & is the most common use modernly. Commercial fishing as taken place by domestic & international companies in Saint Lucian waters since the country itself existed. This is due to their large abundance of edible fish. This had long lasting negative affects on the marine ecosystems. From this & many other local extinctions, we can learn that marine resource utilization should have the long lasting factors thought about before it is conducted. Another way that the marine resources were used for purposes, is oil extraction. This also had strange & dangerous affects on the wildlife. Boating has also become rather popular & that has caused many issues for animals that live in what are now harbours. Directories / Credits https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/st-lucia https://www.climateandforests-undp.org/explore/caribbean/saint-lucia https://mpatlas.org/countries/list https://www.agrra.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/STL-Report-Card_2016_WebLowRes.pdf https://www.wri.org/data/shoreline-protected-coral-reefs-st-lucia https://sevenseasmedia.org/st-lucia-coral-spawning/ http://www.oas.org/reia/iwcam/pdf/St.%20Lucia/Chapter%203.PDF https://www.thegef.org/news/communities-innovate-address-sargassum-seaweed-coasts-saint-lucia Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa ReplyForward

Today’s article is a part of a special collection, known as the Marine Hall Of Fame. Recently we have decided to publish the collection as the Marine Biological Hall Of Distinction. It is the exact same collection, however it is just under a separate name. In this special collection we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main months series. This series publishes on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s Marine Biologist, is Eugenie Clark, best known as The Shark Lady. She is best known for her study of shark species, & her pioneering research in the Scuba Diving field. She was one of the first ichthyologists of her time, as well as one of the first people to promote conservation of marine ecosystems. She popularized the study of ichthyology, & popularized the image of sharks. In this article we will discuss Clark’s Early Life & Education, Clark’s Later Life & Career, & Finally Clark’s Awards, Honours, Achievements, & Accomplishments. With that being said let us delve into the life of Eugenie Clark. Eugenie Clark’s Early Life & Education Eugenie Clark was born on May 4th of 1922, in New York City, New York. When she was young, she was often taken to the New York Aquarium, which she says inspired her passion for ichthyology. Not only this, but she learned to swim at age 2, which made her more curious about oceanic life. Additionally, she is of Japanese descent, & the ocean plays a significant role in Japanese culture. It is unknown whether or not this impacted her interest in any particular way. Unfortunately, her father died before she reached aged 2. Afterwards, her mother remarried a Japanese restaurant owner. She got her elementary education from a local school in Woodside, Queens, & got her secondary education from William Cullen Bryant High School, also in Queens. William Cullen Bryant High School is located at 48-10 31st Avenue, Astoria, New York, 11103. Clark has also mentioned that she was greatly inspired by the works of Charles William Beebe, a researcher of marine biology. Eugenie Clark’s Later Life & Career Determined to study marine life, Clark worked to pay her way through university. She earned her bachelor’s degree from Hunter College in 1942, studying the puffing mechanics of blowfish. After this, she applied to the graduate program at Columbia University, but she was rejected by the department chairman as they were concerned that she would leave her career in science to have a family. After this, she applied at New York University, where she would earn her Masters Degree from New York University in 1946. While attending New York University, she worked as a chemist for a plastics company to earn extra income. The same year that she graduated from Hunter College, she would marry her first husband Jideo Umaki. She would remain married to him until 1947 when they would get divorced. After going on a graduate research trip in the southern pacific, she became employed at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1946. At this institution she learned how to scuba dive properly, which would greatly benefit her throughout her career. She would remain employed here until 1947, when she was asked by the United States Fish & Wildlife Service to study the sea life of a certain area of the Philippines. Unfortunately, due to her being of Japanese descent, she was detained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation & could not go. After this in 1948, she worked at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Then after leaving her job at Woods Hole in 1948, she became a staff member at the American Museum Of Natural History, New York, where she would work until 1966. In the year of 1949 she would be asked by the Office of Naval Research to collect & identify certain poisonous species of fish in the South Seas. It was here she learned how to free dive, an important skill that would be useful later on in her life. In 1950, she would marry her second husband Ilias Themistokles Konstantinu, to who she would remain married until 1967. Also in 1950, she would earn her doctorate in zoology studying swordtails, which just so happened to be the fish she kept in her home aquariums in her adolescence. In 1951, she conducted research in the Red Sea from the Al-Ghardaqah Marine Biological Station located in Egypt. She earned her Doctoral Degree in 1950 from New York University from her research on the subject of live bearing reproduction in the platy fish & swordfish. She was also the first person to conduct artificial insemination experiments on fish that were successful. In 1953, she wrote her first memoir called “Lady With The Spear”. In the year 1955, using funding from William H. Vanderbilt, she founded the Cape Haze Marine Laboratory in Placida, Florida. This laboratory, was first only founded in a single room. She founded it with an assistant, who was a fisherman. This lab went on to have six campuses, 24 research programs, & 200 staff on all 7 continents in the modern day. It was later moved to Siesta Key in 1960, & Sarasota in 1967. Also in 1967, she married her third husband Chandler Brossand, who she would remain married to until 1969 when they would divorce. In that same year of 1967, the laboratory was renamed “Mote Marine Labratory”. In the year 1955, a cancer researcher asked Clark to capture some sharks so their livers could be studied, which led to the creation of a pen for live sharks in the lab. In 1958, Clark conducted various research studies in order to see if sharks could be trained, as well as how intelligent they were. While conducting these experiments, she taught lemon sharks & a few other species how to push buttons for food. This destroyed the stereotype that sharks lacked intelligence. Henceforth, Clark would advocate for conservation of sharks, & would work to dispel the notion that sharks are dangerous animals. She would go on to become a faculty member of the University Of Maryland in 1968. In 1970, she would marry her fourth husband Igor Klatzo, who she would divorce that same year. She became a full professor at the University of Maryland in the year 1973, then became professor emeritus in 1992. Soon after becoming a faculty member, she wrote her second memoir “The Lady & The Sharks” in 1969. Clark would continue to make frequent expeditions to the Red Sea, & various other places even after becoming emeritus. It is on these trips that she discovered the Trichonotus nikii which is a species of sand diving fish found in the Red Sea. She named it after her son, Nikolas. She would also discover the Pardachirus marmoratus or the “Red Sea Moses Sole”, which produces a natural repellent of sharks. In 1991, she would co-author the children’s book “The Desert beneath the Sea”, this book would mainly entail her adventures along the sandy sea floor of the Red Sea. She married her fifth husband Henry Yoshinobu Kon in 1997, to whom she would remain married until his suicide in the year 2000. She fully retired from teaching in any capacity in 1999. She returned back to the laboratory she had built in 2000 as a Senior Scientist & Director Emerita, & later went on to become a trustee. Clark would often contribute columns & articles to the National Geographic magazine. Along with all this, Clark is widely credited with discovering the fact that certain sharks don’t need to swim to breathe. Clark would go on to take her last dive in 2014. She passed away on February 15th of 2015, due to complications with lung cancer at the age of 92. At the time of her death, her latest research was still in review for publish. She was survived by her 4 children Hera Papakonstantinou, Aya Papakonstantinou, Themistokles Alexander Papakonstantinou, & Nikolas Masatomo Papakonstantinou. Eugenie Clark’s Awards, Honourables, Achievements, & Accomplishments 1. Clark conducted over 200 field research missions over the course of her career. 2. She authored a staggering total of 175 scientific articles. 3. She was the recipient of 3 Doctoral Degrees in Science from various institutions. 4. She won the Gold Medal Award of the Society of Women Geographers. 5. She also won the President's Medal of the University of Maryland, where she worked for many years. 6. She conducted a total of 72 dives for research purposes over the course of her life. 7. She authored a total of 3 books, & was the subject of countless others. 8. She has an award named after her from the “Save Our Seas Foundation.” 9. She Founded the Mote Marine Laboratory in Placida, Florida. Directories / Credits 1. “Dr. Eugenie Clark (1922-2015)”, Written by Unknown & Published on an Unknown date. Published by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Retrieval Date: May 31st, 2023. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/may15/eugenie-clark.html 1. ”Eugenie Clark”, Written by Unknown, originally Published on July 20th of 1998, last updated April 30th of 2023. Published by the Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieval Date: May 31st, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eugenie-Clark 1. “Remembering Mote’s “Shark Lady”: The Life and Legacy of Dr. Eugenie Clark” Published March 15th, 2015, Written by Hayley Rutger. Published by the Mote Marine Laboratory. Retrieval Date May 31st, 2023. https://mote.org/news/article/remembering-the-shark-lady-the-life-and-legacy-of-dr.-eugenie-clark 1. “Eugenie Clark Award”, Written by Unknown, Published on the 14th of August 2015. Published by the Save Our Seas Foundation. Retrieval Date: May 31st, 2023. https://saveourseas.com/eugenie-clark-award/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter, will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however it is a separate entity. In this article, we will state all of the most prominent species of Marine Flora in Malibu Lagoon that were found. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, this was done with the correct permits, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do so. On June 17th of 2023, we sent 2 field agents to Ranchos Palos Verdes Beach. On the beach, We did a survey of all the seagrasses & seaweeds that washed up on shore. We have took the coordinates & a sample of certain of these species, in order to study them. They have collected samples of the seaweed species that were found along the beach. We got in total, 6 samples of seagrasses from the beach. In this article, we will publish the results of examination of these seagrasses, & due to this article being public, it will make an official public log of all the seagrasses along that beach. To be clear, this is a survey that will only be conducted once, & not yearly like the Malibu surveys. This survey is a stand alone study. With that being said, let us delve into the seagrasses of Ranchos Palos Verdes Beach. The Initial Survey Of Ranchos Palos Verdes Beach Under this category, will be all of the compiled list of all of the species that were found along the beach. All of our specimens were taken at approximately 6:30 PM on June 17th, 2023. This was closer to high tide then to low tide, as the high tide of the day was at 9:17 PM. This may influence the results as we may have more seaweed samples then we would at say low tide. Below is the list of all samples of seaweed found at Ranchos Palos Verdes. Specimen 1: Chondrus Crispus (Carrageen Moss / Irish Moss ) We found the species Chondrus Crispus growing abundantly along the beach. This species is also known as Irish Moss, or Carrageen Moss. The beach is rather rocky, which makes conditions very comfortable for this species to grow. We found this specimen at the coordinates of 33°43’44” North 118°21’9” West or 250° West . Our Specimen measured at 16.9 centimeters (6.653543 inches). Usually in this species each plant grow to at minimum 20 centimeters. meaning it is This specimen was a deep wine red colour, meaning it was most likely in it was healthy, & had not been exposed on the beach for very long. Carrageen moss will turn brown in the winter, however since summer solstice in California is the 22nd of June, this moss had been in the spring & early summer heat for quite some time. Irish moss will usually have branches 2 millimeters to 15 millimeters thick, however our specimen was somewhat small so it was at a lower thickness. This species was the most prominent by far along the beach, as you quite clearly could not walk more then 10 feet without seeing or stepping on Carrageen Moss. This species grows most commonly in the intertidal zone along the beach, & as deep as the oceanic floor. Carrageen moss is also deep purple in colour. This species is found practically everywhere on the beach except for the Rocky Areas. Specimen 2: Unidentified White Seagrass Species We found this strange specimen along the sandy portion of the beach, far from the rocky portion of the beach. It seemed to be the only specimen of its species along the beach. We found this species at coordinates 33°43’44” North 118°21’9” West or 294° North West. Our specimen for this species measured at approximately 6.5 inches long (16.51 centimeters). It seems to have a main root part that connects all of its leaves, that is attached to the bottom of the specimen. This species seemed to be in the highest density on the north central most area on the beach. Specimen 3: Callophyllis We found this specimen very close by the place where the white specimen. It was tangled in a large mat of Carrageen Moss. We found this specimen at the coordinates 33°43’44” North 118°21’9” West or 297° North West. Our specimen of this species measured at approximately 5.25 inches (13.335 centimeters) long. We narrowed it down to the genus of Callophyllis, however we could not figure out exactly which species it was. There are approximately 55 species under this genus, making it extremely hard to determine which exactly it was. Our specimen was a light red colour, & not very pigmented at all. When held up to the light, the tips are translucent. Additionally the branches of this species seemed to have some kind of bacteria growing on it, as when held up to the light, there seemed to be large dots on the branches. This could also just be a pigmentation issue. This genus is characterized by its red, disco looking seagrasses. Out of all the species on this list, it seemed to be the third least common on the beach. Specimen 4: Corallina Officinalis (Common Coraline) We found this specimen clumped in the same mat as the specimen of Ulva Lactuca. These 2 specimens were found at 33°43’44” North 118°21’9” West or 333° North West. Our specimen of this species measured at 5.25 inches (13.335 centimeters) long. This species seemed to have one central stem, & have a small appendages growing off of all of the sides. This species is also rather fluffy, & calcareous. Out of all the species on that beach this species seemed to be the second most commonly found. Common Coraline grows primarily in the rocky & intertidal zones, but strangely enough washes up the most on the beach & not on the rocks or in-between them. This species is certainly very recognizable as it is a deep purple colour, similar to that of Carrageen Moss. This species is found on the highest density on the sandy most parts of the beach, & is virtually nonexistent on the rocky areas of the beach. Specimen 5: Ulva Lactuca (Sea Lettuce) We found this specimen clumped in the same mat as the Purple Seagrass. These 2 specimens were found at 33°43’44” North 118°21’9” West or 333° North West. Our specimen of this species measured at approximately 13 inches long. It seems, that we found just the leaf portion of this species. Our specimen does not seem to have a stem, fruit, root, or anything of the like. This is most certainly just the leaf of whichever species it belongs to. Ulva Lactuca has thin, flat, long, wide leaves that are extremely recognizable. This species is also a deep neon green colour, however it can also appear a regular ivy green. This species, along with Zostera Marina, is the one of more uncommon of all the seagrasses on this list. More specifically, it is the second most uncommon of all of the species. This species grows most commonly on rocks, & in intertidal zones. This species seems to be in the highest density on the central most side of the beach. Specimen 6: Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass / Seawrack) We found our specimen of Zostera Marina at the coordinates 33°43’44” North 118°21’10”, or 314° North West. This species is not found as frequently on the beach as all of the other species on this list. It was found towards the center of the beach, further away from all other major mats of seagrass. Zostera Marina always tends to grow to massive lengths, but we found an especially small specimen. The longest part of specimen for this species measured at 45 inches long (114.3 centimeters). Though, this specific was discovered in a large mat, so many of its tendrils broke off from the main root. This makes it difficult to determine the real length that the unbroken specimen is supposed to be. This species & Ulva Lactuca, seem to be the least common along Ranchos Palos Verdes Beach. This species is extremely easy to identify as it is long, thin, & green. It is by far the the longest species found on Ranchos Palos Verdes Beach. It seems to be found in the highest density towards the central most areas of the beach. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

On June 20th of 2022, The Persaud Catalog published its first article. This article discussed the Gulf of Catalina, & the formatting of it was wildly different from the modern format that all current articles have. At the beginning, we only published 3 articles a month, & didn’t cover as much information as we do now. We have come a long way, & we would not have made it without all of our dear readers. In celebration of our anniversary with all of you, we offer a promotion to have all memberships 10 percent off until August 23rd. If you choose to get a membership with our nonprofit from now to August 23rd, then you will get 10 percent off your membership if you choose the annual payment option. To get a membership please visit the page on our website titled “Membership Application”. This application can be filled out on mobile or on computer. Once you fill out this application, you will be emailed an invoice, & a code of conduct form to sign. Thank you all, & we hope to have many more years like this. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

This article is not a part of the main monthly series or anything of that nature. This is an announcement, announcing the launching of a new series for The Persaud Catalog. This series will be titled “Ode To Oceanography” & it will analyze nautical maps. Specifically, historical nautical maps made on paper. This new series will publish on the 15th of every month as of now. What will happen in each article is that, we will find a historical nautical map & then analyze how it was made, which islands it includes, which islands were overlooked, & who it was made by. These articles will be full length, & will be between 1,000 & 3,000 words long. To clarify, this will be an article series within The Persaud Catalog, & not an entirely new newsletter like The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology. This article will have little to do with the main monthly series, though occasionally these articles may be analyzing maps in the same place as the monthly articles. When these specific articles are published, they will be differentiated between other articles by their title saying “Ode To Oceanography” in it. The first article for this series will be published on the 15th of July, 2023. It will then repeat & publish on the 15th of every month for eternity. When the first article is published, more information will be released. For now, this is all the information pertaining to the new series. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Today’s article is a part of a special collection, known as the Marine Hall Of Fame. Recently we have decided to publish the collection as the Marine Biological Hall Of Distinction. It is the exact same collection, however it is just under a separate name. In this special collection we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main month’s series. This series publishes on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist, is Hans Heinrich Romulus Hass, an Austrian pioneer in diving & marine biologist. He is most well-known for his work in underwater film, which he made an industry. His wife Lotte Hass, was an actor so this helped his films greatly. He has written 32 books in total as well. In this article we will discuss the Early Life & Education of Hans Heinrich Romulus Hass, the Later Life & Career of Hans Heinrich Romulus Hass, & finally, his awards, honours, achievements, & accomplishments Of Hans Heinrich Romulus Hass. With that being said, let us delve into the father of underwater film. The Early Life & Education Of Hans Heinrich Romulus Hass Hans Heinrich Romulus Hass was born on January 23rd of 1919. He was born in the city of Vienna, Austria, where he was born to an attorney as a father. This influenced him to pursue law as a career originally. It seems that as a child, he had little to no interest in marine biology or underwater film. Little is known about his childhood, & unfortunately the details of his early education are unclear. It seems, he had his first encounter with underwater photography & hunting at the age of 19 on a vacation to the Riveria. On this vacation at the Riveria, he met the American Diver & Pilot, Guy Gilpatric. They both dived together at the Riveria & took photographs of their diving expedition. This is where he had his first encounter with underwater film. He published his first book, titled “Diving to Adventure” in the year 1939, which was full of photographs from this trip. The Later Life & Career Of Hans Heinrich Romulus Hass At the age of 19, Hans made his first expedition to the Caribbean Sea, which led to him writing his first professional article in 1938. In the year 1940, he officially changed from studying law to studying Zoology. Now, Hans Suffered from Raynauds Disease, which causes blocks in your blood flow in small arteries. This gave him a chance to be excused from the German Military in 1942, which he was. In 1942 he bought the sailing ship Seeteufel & was going to use it for an expedition through the Mediterranean Sea. Unfortunately, he was unable to go on this Mediterranean expedition, due to World War 2 being in full force. After abandoning that plan, he rented a sailing ship in Piraeus, Greece. Using this vessel he sailed through the Aegan Sea for a few months, as well as the Sea of Crete. In the spring & summer of 1943, he spent his time in the Stazione Zoologica in both Naples & the Island of Capri. While here he collected bryozoans for his thesis. Later on in the year 1944, he finished his thesis & graduated with a Ph.D in Biology from the University of Berlin. Soon after in 1945, he married his first wife Mrs. Hannelore Schroth, a German actress. With her he had his first son, Hans Hass Junior, who was born in the year 1946. Unfortunately, their marriage didn’t last, & they divorced after only 5 years in 1950. Also in 1950, he married his second wife Lotte Hass, who was also a German actress & underwater diver. With her had a daughter, Meta Hass. With her, he made many of his underwater films. During Hans’s life he was known as the rival of the French scientist, Jacques Cousteau, as Hans believed that Cousteau would only acknowledge himself, & never others’ achievements. Unfortunately, on June 16th of 2013 in the Austrian city of Vienna, Hans passed away at the age of 94. He was survived by his wife Lotte Hass, & his daughter Meta Hass. The Awards, Honours, Achievements, & Accomplishments Of Hans Heinrich Romulus Hass 1. He photographed all pictures in, authored, & published “Diving to Adventure” Circa 1939. 2. He is credited as the director for 10 films, the writer for 7 films, & the cinematographer for 6 films. 3. He won the Romy Television Award at the Romy Gala in 2012. 4. Hans claimed to be the first diver to use proper oxygen delivery equipment, which revolutionized diving as we know it. 5. He is credited with being an inventor or the inventor of underwater cameras. 6. He wrote, photographed photographs for, & published a total of 32 books. Directories / Credits “Hans Hass, Early Undersea Explorer, Dies at 94”, Written By Paul Vietello, July 3rd 2013. Published by the New York Times. Retrieval Date: May 24th, 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/04/science/earth/hans-hass-early-undersea-explorer-dies-at-94.html “Whose Wednesday: Hans Hass” Written by Piter Kehoma Boll, Published at an unknown date. Published by the Earthling Nature Blog. Retrieval Date: May 24th, 2023. https://earthlingnature.wordpress.com/2019/01/23/whose-wednesday-hans-hass/ “Hans Hass”, Written by unknown, & published on an unknown date. Published by Imdb. Retrieval Date: May 24th, 2023. https://m.imdb.com/name/nm0351946/ “Hans Heinrich Romulus Hass”, Written by unknown, & published on an unknown date. Published by the Equator Journal. Retrieval Date: May 24th, 2023. https://equatorjournal.com/post/619205569164787712/hans-heinrich-romulus-hass-1950-hans-heinrich/amp Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Ostend Beach, Belgium Today's article will discuss the oceans surrounding Ostend Beach, Belgium. Ostend Beach is in the northern area of Belgium. It is touching the southern area of the North Sea. It is on the mainland & is not an island. Ostend Beach is specifically part of the town known as Ostend. For the historical part of this month’s series, the history of the town will be studied instead of the beach itself. Ostend is approximately 61.66 miles from (70.957061 miles or 114.19432 kilometers) from the island of Great Britain. The actual name of the city is Oostende. This translates from German into English as “East End”. This is a bit confusing as Ostend Beach is in the northeastern area of Belgium. The German-speaking population of Belgium is in the western area, not the area where Ostend Beach is. This leads many to wonder how the town was named. It is currently considered to be one of the most beautiful beaches in all of Belgium. It is also one of the most well-known beaches in Belgium because of how beautiful it is & active marine life. Many recreational activities take place around this area such as swimming, boating, & fishing. There are many cetaceans that live in this area because they do not have much competition. Many other fish or competitors for food are not found in this area, which led to a large amount of porpoises, dolphins, & whales. There are currently no known endemic marine animals to Oostende, Belgium at this time. Thanks to the warm water currents of Belgium, coral could theoretically survive there. Coral reefs have yet to be discovered in Belgian waters. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of Ostend, Belgium. With that being said, let us delve into the most scenic & majestic areas of Belgium. The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of Ostend Beach The Salinity of Belgium has been documented as being between 34 & 35.5 parts per thousand. Since the town is in the Atlantic, it will most likely have a higher salinity than say the Pacific Ocean or the Indian Ocean. Salt deposits / Brine Pools may be more common around the island due to the higher salinity. However, the existence of brine pools around the town has not been proven. The salinity levels of the Atlantic Ocean at any given time are between 35.5 & 34.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no ongoing factors that would lead to the salinity level being altered. The oceanic temperature of the waters surrounding Oostende can be found on a plethora of webpages, but the most user-friendly is https://seatemperature.net , Surf-forecast.comhttps://www.surf-forecast.com , SeaTemperatu.rehttps://www.seatemperatu.re , & finally WaterTemperature.orghttps://www.watertemperature.org . The lowest temperatures are usually between 45° & 40° Fahrenheit (7.22222° to 4.44444° Celsius). The tidal charts can also be found on a few of these websites. The tides usually never get over 5.955792 meters (19.54 feet) high. The surf is not dangerously high & there is not much riptide. There are a few currents surrounding the beach area, however, they are more than a mile off the coast. Recreational activities such as fishing are increasingly popular. Individual boating does not seem to be very common however it takes place. Swimming is also common, however, it is only permitted in certain areas of the beach. The oceanic floor of the areas around Oostende usually consists of rock, sand, or seagrass. Seamounts are not common & the land is usually flat at the bottom. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers). Water pollution is also not an issue & the water is perfectly safe to swim in, the only concern would be the temperature of the water being so cold. There are currently 23 marine protected areas around Belgium, the largest of which takes up approximately 34% of Belgium enter the oceanic area. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Ostend Beach Belgium Seagrass Meadows The seagrasses around Belgium are in abundance & often form large meadows around the coast. The main species of seagrasses that are present are Zostera marina & Zostera noltii. Zostera Noltii is more commonly found & is more present, this may be due to the nutrients that are necessary for these 2 seagrasses to grow & there being a deficiency in some of the said nutrients. This ecosystem is often used as a nursery, hunting ground, & breeding ground. It is extremely fragile as this is usually where the smaller animals will reside. These seagrasses are in abundance & often embellish the coastlines. Tidal Marshes Sometimes the seagrasses will grow extremely close to the shoreline which creates a type of tidal marsh. These areas usually are not permanent due to humans trampling the seagrass. These areas usually have many different types of crustaceans. Usually, the type of grass that will compose this area is the Zostera marina (seawrack). The Documented Marine Flora Of Ostend Beach There are 2 species of seagrass documented in this specific area of Belgium, they are known as Zostera noltii (dwarf eelgrass) & Zostera marina (common eelgrass). Zostera Marina is found as deep as 2 meters (6.56168 feet) & makes up the majority of tidal marshes & shallow seagrass meadows. It is found as shallow as -12 meters. Zostera Noltii is the second species & it is found in deep areas. It usually is also not found strongly along the coastline. It is not found in tidal zones either. There are algae species in this area of Belgium however they are mostly unrecorded. However, Brown algae & Red algae have both been discovered in this area. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Ostend Beach There are many different species of marine fauna which are found throughout Belgium. Though Belgium has the shortest coast of any country that touches the north sea, it still has much biodiversity. For the purposes of this article, we will not be discussing any types of plankton that exist in the area or water birds. Plankton species are extremely common in this area, however, they have yet to be identified by individual species. Many species that are able to survive in this area usually have large amounts of fat on their body so that they will not freeze to death. These 2 factors may contribute to the reason as to why so many baleen whales are found in the area. Now the most prominent marine species recorded around Ostend are as fallows: Phocena Phocena (harbour porpoise), Halichoerus grypus (Atlantic grey seal), Phoca Vitulina (harbour seal), Balaenoptera acutorostrata (northern minke whale), Tursiops truncantus (common bottlenose dolphin), Cyprinus carpio (Eurasian carp), Perca fluviatilis (European perch), Sander lucioperca (Zander), Salmo Trutta (brown trout), Anguilla Anguilla (European eel), Esox lucius (northern pike), Chondrostroma nasus (Common nase / sneep ), Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon), & finally Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout). How The Marine Resources Of Ostend Beach Were Utilized & How That Affected The Environment Oftentimes, the waters of Belgium were used for commercial fishing. Fishermen would primarily fish for trout & Atlantic salmon however occasionally they could have fished for other species as well. Personal fishing is also incredibly common. Ecotourism is also a popular activity that takes place in Belgian waters due to there being a large population of cetaceans. Usually, ecotourism in Belgium is ethical & does not harm the environment but sometimes it can negatively affect the environment. However it usually positively affects the environment because the ecotourists' money usually goes into maintaining the environment. Marine research is also common & several European marine laboratories are located along Belgium's coastline. Directories / Credits https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10085385/ ttps://mpatlas.org/countries/BEL marine.ucsc.eduhttps://marine.ucsc.edu › target › tar...Zostera | MARINe https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=495082 https://www.naturalsciences.be/en/news/item/21440/ https://www.marinespecies.org/berms/ http://www.marinemammals.be/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology: Survey 1, Malibu Lagoon. This is the first article published in our newest newsletter titled, “The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology”. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however, it is a separate entity. On May 13th, we have sent 3 field agents out to Malibu to collect information about the marine plants in Malibu Lagoon. They collected samples of the seaweed species that were found, & these samples were studied. In this article, we will state all of the most prominent species of Marine Flora in Malibu Lagoon that were found. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, this was done with the correct permits, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do so. This is the first survey of 5 surveys in Malibu Lagoon that will be taken over the next 5 years. In the month of May, from 2023 to 2027, we will document all of the seagrasses we are able to find. This is the first surveying project of The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology. At the end of the 5 year period, we will compile the results & published a finalized document. The First Initial Survey Of Malibu Lagoon, & Malibu Lagoon State Beach During the Initial Survey, we found there were 4 predominant species of seaweed along Malibu Lagoon. To be clear, all of our specimens were taken at 5:00 PM during the month of May, & some of these seagrasses are only found during certain months. We will conduct another survey on May 13th of 2024, & continue until May 2027. Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass / Seawrack) We found our specimens of Zostera Marina on the Northern Side of the Malibu State Beach & nearby the area where the Malibu Lagoon meets the Pacific Ocean. We found 2 specimens, however, there were more specimens of this species dotted along the beach, the reason we did not take them is because there were various Marine Fauna nearby them, & we could not disturb them. Specimen No. 1 of this species is 6 feet & 11 inches (210.82 centimeters) long. This is rather unusual for Eelgrass in this area, as that usually only grows to be 3 to 4 feet (0.9144 to 1.2192 meters) in Malibu. Specimen No. 2 of this species is approximately 1 foot & 10 inches (55.88 centimeters) long. Both specimens were found wrapped around a little bunch of mussels, & were wrapped around another species of seagrass. This species is the second most prominent in the lagoon, & is most commonly found wrapped around bunches of mussels. There are so many bunches of mussels, that it can be found very commonly in the north end of the lagoon & beach because of how many mussels there are. It is in the highest density on the northern end of the lagoon because of this. Inside of the lagoon, it is not found very much though. This plant is rather easy to identify as it is extremely long, thin & green. It differs from the typical Devil Weed that is seen the most on California Beaches. It is between 1 & 1.2 centimeters (0.393701 & 0.472441 inches) wide & it can grow between 3 & 7.2 feet (0.9144 to 2.19456 meters in length. At its base, it can be found with a white-coloured stem. This species is most commonly found growing in the shallow marshes of Malibu Lagoon. Sargassum horneri (Devil Weed) We found 1 specimen of this species along the beach that was suitable for this purpose. This species was the most prominent & was found all over the beach, so much so that you physically couldn’t walk more than 15 feet without stepping near or on this algae. Our specimen for this, was 23.4252 inches (59.5 centimeters) long. This species is usually the most prominent along the majority of Southern California Beaches. It has invaded the California Coastline, to the point where it is obstructing foot traffic along some beaches. It is not very common inside the Lagoon. This species arrived in the United States via a cargo shipment from Japan into the Long Beach harbour in the year 2003. This species of seagrass is brown, & it has little berries along it. This type of seagrass does not grow on the bottom of the sea like Seawrack, instead, it grows in one large pile floating on the surface of the water. This is why it is so easy for lots of Devil Weed to wash up along the shoreline at once. Lithothrix Aspergillum (Stone Hair) Our specimen of this species measured was 14 centimeters. This species of seaweed does not have a common name that is widely used, so it is extremely hard to find. Occasionally, it can be called “Stone Hair”. Our specimen of this species was found on the northern end of the Malibu Lagoon State Beach, along with the other 2 specimens listed thus far. It is spongey looking, & it is rather purple. It can appear to look a bit less purple at times, & lean more towards a bleached pink colour. This species of algae will often be found settling in the tide pools of the Lagoon & settling on the rocks around the beach. Unidentified Orange Algae Species Our specimen for this species was 14 centimeters. We found some orange algae along the Malibu Lagoon State Beach, however, we could not identify its species. It does not look like anything that should be along the California Coast. This species was found along the central portion of Malibu State Beach. Our Conclusion Our Final Conclusion, is that there are a total of 4 prominent species of seagrass & seaweed in Malibu Lagoon. There tend to be more seagrass specimens during low tide, which is why to conduct a survey like this you should conduct the survey at the time when the tide is lowest. The number of seagrass & seaweed may increase, or decrease by the next annual Survey. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

El artículo de este mes es de Svalbard. Svalbard es un archipiélago cerca del Polo Norte. Actualmente pertenece al país de Noruega. Estáaproximadamente a 366,83 millas (422,140425 o 697,36916 kilómetros) de la Noruega continental. Está muy cerca del Polo Norte y, a menudo, tiene condiciones frígidas. Es muy difícil que sobreviva cualquier tipo de vida marina. Sin embargo, unos tipos de animales marinos han logrado sobrevivir en este clima. Una de estas especies se llama la Morsa. La Morsa es un animal marino que vive por la mayor parte en el Océano Ártico y el Atlántico Norte. Generalmente no interactúa con los humanos o con las otras especies además de la presa. En este artículo, vamos a discutir la vida de la Morsa, los procedimientos de apareamiento, las tácticas, prácticas y ciclos de la Morsa. También vamos a hablar de la distribución de la Morsa, sus detalles científicos y su migración. Con eso dicho, vamos a hablar más detalladamente de la Morsa. La Vida de la Morsa Común del Atlántico Ha sido documentado que las Morsas fuerondescubiertas en 1534. Jacques Cartier las descubrieronen las islas del Cabo Bretón. Se las documentó como estar en grandes manadas. Sin embargo, se las quitó de esas áreas durante los siglos 17 y 18. Por la mayor parte, los balleneros europeos las quitaron. Usualmente los machos tienen una largitud de entre nueve hasta doce pies (2,7432 hasta 3,6576 metros). Las hembras tienen una largitud de 7,5 a 10 pies (2,286 a 3,048 metros). Los machos pesan hasta dos toneladas (4.000 libras o 1814,369 kilogramas), mientras que las hembras pesan hasta una tonelada (2.000 libras o 907,1847 kilogramas). Al nacer, el becerro o la becerra pesa aproximadamente 130 libras (58,967 kilogramas). Actualmente su esperanza de vida es hasta cuarenta años. Las hembras son completamente maduras a la edad de seis o siete años. Las morsas son increíblemente inteligentes y pueden formar lazos emocionales la una con la otra. También son criaturas muy sociales que viven en grandes manadas. Hace casi 6,5 millones de años que existen. Generalmente no son agresivas hacia los humanos o las otras morsas a menos que se las provoque. Sin embargo, a veces es posible que causen el hundimiento de barcos al rasgar los lados con sus colmillos. De esta manera, volcaron muchos barcos. Frecuentemente las morsas interactúan con los humanos. Es probable que examinen a la gente para decidir si representan una amenaza. A menudo los machos son territoriales, pero las hembras no lo son. A menudo comen peces, crustáceos pequeños, y pepinos de mar. Los adultos pueden comer desde tres por ciento a seis por ciento de su grasa corporal en un día. Comen dos veces al día y pueden comer hasta 6.000 almejas para una comida. No son canibalescas de ninguna forma. Se nota que su metabolismo puede cambiar debido al cambio climático. Actualmente su metabolismo está creciendo constantemente más alto. Es posible que esto siga como resultado del clima climático. No tienen muchos depredadores naturales a causa de su tamaño, sus colmillos y elección de hábitat. Los únicos predadores naturales que tienen son los Osos Polares y las Orcas. Actualmente son clasificadas como Vulnerables bajo la lista roja de la UICN. Esto indica que su población está disminuyendo, pero no a un ritmo rápido. Se estima que hay más o menos 250.000 Morsas en el mundo ahora. Las Morsas tienen cuerpos fuertes y su piel, quepuede ser una pulgada de espesor, es muy dura. La característica más distinguida de las morsas de ambos sexos son sus dos colmillos de marfil, los cuales son largos dientes caninos superiores que siguen creciendo durante la vida de las morsas. El propósito real de estos colmillos es para que la morsa pueda usarlos para penetrar el hielo para salir del agua. También usan los colmillos para hacer agujeros en el hielo para crear espacios para respirar de modo que no pierdan el oxígeno. Muy raramente pueden encontrarse en el agua profunda y tienen la tendencia de quedarse a bordo de flotadores de hielo o en la superficie del agua. Los humanos tienden a no capturar vivas a estas criaturas. En cambio, en su mayoría, los matan antes de tomarlos para sus propósitos. Los Ciclos de Apareamiento, Procedimientos, Prácticas y Tácticas de La Morsa Común del Atlántico Las morsas se aparean a través de la reproducción sexual. Se crian con mayor frecuencia en el agua. Sin embargo, ocasionalmente se ha observado que se aparean en la tierra. Se las considera monógamas ya que durante la temporada de apareamiento, la hembra solo se apareará con un macho. Sin embargo, esto podría significar que las hembras son monógamas con un macho diferente cada temporada de apareamiento. Los machos se aparearán con muchas hembras diferentes cada temporada de apareamiento. Por lo general, no son hermafroditas. Sin embargo, ocasionalmente algunos aparecen con órganos masculinos y femeninos. Las morsas macho también tienen huesos de pene. Estos huesos pueden alcanzar un metro de largo. Las hembras dan a luz a través de un nacimiento vivo. Su actual período de gestación conocido es de 15 a 16 meses. Las hembras alcanzan la madurez sexual aproximadamente a los 6-7 años. Las hembras no tienen hijos hasta alrededor de los 10 años de edad. Los machos alcanzan la plena madurez a los 10-14 años. No parecen tener una edad específica en la que la fecundidad sea máxima. Generalmente, las hembras tienen un bebé cada 2 a 4 temporadas de apareamiento después de alcanzar la madurez. Por lo general, tienen un bebé cada embarazo. Sin embargo, los gemelos son posibles aunque tener gemelos es algo poco común en las poblaciones árticas de morsas. La mamá guarda al bebé consigo. La madre protege a su cría de una manera muy agresiva. También hará que su cría se monte de sus espaldas en el agua para que esté a salvo de posibles amenazas. La Distribución de la Morsa Común del Atlántico Hay dos especies principales de morsas. Actualmente se cuestiona a la morsa de Laptev sobre su clasificación como una morsa. Sin embargo, solo hablaremos de la morsa del Atlántico, no de la morsa del Pacífico. Generalmente, las morsas del Atlántico se encuentran en la mayoría de las áreas del norte del mundo. Se encuentran en los territorios del norte y en Nunavut, ambos pertenecientes a Canadá. También se encuentran, por la mayor parte, en las áreas alrededor del noreste y noroeste de Groenlandia. En y alrededor del archipiélago de Svalbard se encuentran en altas concentraciones. Por lo general, se adhieren a temperaturas más frías. Es más probable que esto se deba a su constitución física que tiene mucha grasa. En cualquier otro ambiente que no sea en estas áreas del norte, su grasa puede causar un sobrecalentamiento severo. Estas áreas también están fuertemente protegidas por las leyes internacionales de pesca que brindan una especie de refugio seguro. No se encuentran en Alaska ni cerca de las áreas de Alaska. Tampoco se encuentran en Islandia. No se encuentran en Rusia continental sino se encuentran en el archipiélago ruso de Novaya Zemlya. En estas áreas, en su mayoría, los humanos los dejan solos, por lo que ahora se observan en cantidades tan altas. IMG_3771.webp Los 2 mapas que están arriba representan las áreas en las que se documentan las morsas del Atlántico. Los Detalles Científicos de la Morsa Común del Atlántico Las morsas son algunas de las criaturas más interesantes debido a un aspecto único, sus colmillos. Las morsas tienen unos caninos enormes que sobresalen de la boca y que conocemos como colmillos. El uso exacto de estos es salir del agua penetrando el hielo. Hablaremos más de esto más adelante en esta sección del artículo. No está documentado cuántos huesos tienen. Sus molares son bastante planos y rechonchos para moler crustáceos. Esto también se puede observar en los manatíes. Sus colmillos son sus únicos dientes afilados y no están destinados a la caza. Generalmente, no comen animales muy grandes, por lo que sus dientes están destinados a rechinar. Se nota a menudo que la población del Árticono nazca con anomalías en los huesos o los órganos. Los machos tienen dos órganos especializados que les ayudan a atraer a una pareja. Tienen dos sacos de aire que se encuentran en la parte superior del pecho y la cabeza que se pueden inflar a pedido. Este órgano solo se encuentra en los machos. Las morsas comunes del Atlántico hoy en día, tal como las conocemos, evolucionaron de animales terrestres. Esto se puede ver en la actualidad por su capacidad para arrastrarse a altas velocidades en la tierra. En el momento de la publicación su nombre científico es OdobenusRosmarus. Su phylum se conoce como Chordata, lo que significa que desarrollaron estas cincocaracterísticas, o como adultos o como jóvenes. Más de 60.000 especies se clasifican en Chordata en el momento de la publicación. Las características que desarrollan incluyen una notocorda, cordón nervioso dorsal hueco, endostilo o tiroides, hendiduras faríngeas y una cola postanal. Su clase se conoce como Mammalia. Los mamíferos se clasifican por la producción de leche por parte de la madre para que su hijo amamante, una neocorteza que es una región del cerebro, cierta capacidad de pelaje o cabello, y tres huesos del oído medio. Su orden es Carnivora, que es una orden monofilética de mamíferos plancentales. Todos estos mamíferos han evolucionado para especializarse en comer pescado. Este orden es el quinto orden más grande de mamíferos y tiene, al momento de la publicación, al menos 279 especies categorizadas bajo él. Su clado es Pinnpedia, lo que significa que son pinnípedos. Los pinnípedos son un grupo de especies semiacuáticas y mamíferos marinos muy distribuidos y extremadamente diversos. Su familia se conoce como Obodenidae. Obodenidae es una familia diversa de pinnípedos. Sin embargo, la única especie viva clasificada en esta categoría es la morsa. Su género es Odobenus. Gallery Directories / Credits https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/walrus#RelationshipwithHumans https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=walrus.main https://wildfocusexpeditions.com/what-is-a-walrus/ https://seaworld.org/animals/all-about/walrus/classification/ https://oceana.org/marine-life/walrus/ https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/walrus https://mmru.ubc.ca/wp-content/pdfs/Rosen%202021.pdf https://slate.com/technology/2015/11/animal-respiration-walrus-frog-and-butt-breathing-turtle.html BioExpeditionhttps://www.bioexpedition.com › w...Walrus Evolution Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors

This month’s article series will be about… Svalbard! Svalbard is an archipelago close to the north pole. It is currently owned by the country of Norway. It is approximately 366.83 Nautical/Marine miles (422.140425 miles or 679.36916 Kilometers) from mainland Norway. It is incredibly close to the north pole & has frigid conditions often. It is quite hard for any marine life at all to survive here, however a few types of marine mammals have learned to survive in this climate. One of those marine species is known as the Walrus. The walrus is a marine mammal that primarily lives in the Arctic Ocean & the Northern Atlantic. It often does not interact with humans or other species besides prey. In this article, we will discuss the life of the Walrus, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the Walrus, the distribution of the Walrus, the scientific detailing of the Walrus & the migration of the Walrus. With that being said, let’s delve into the Walrus. The Life Of The Common Atlantic Walrus Walruses were first documented as discovered in 1534. They were discovered by Jacques Cartier in the Cape Breton islands. They were documented as being in large herds. However, they were extirpated from those areas over the course of the 17th & 18th centuries. This was mainly done by European whalers. The males are usually between 9-12 feet long (2.7432 to 3.6576 meters) the females are 7.5-10 (2.286 to 3.048 meters) feet long. The males weigh up to 2 tons (4,000 pounds or 1814.369 kilograms) while the female will weigh up to 1 ton (2,000 pounds or 907.1847 kilograms). The calf will weigh approximately 130 pounds (58.967 kilograms) at birth regardless of gender. Its current documented life span is up to 40 years. The females fully mature at approximately 6 to 7 years old. Walruses are incredibly intelligent & can form emotional bonds with one another. They are also very social creatures who live in large herds. They have existed for roughly 6.5 million years. They are not often aggressive towards humans or each other unless provoked. However sometimes they do cause the sinking of boats by ripping the sides with their tusks. They capsized many boats. They do not interact with humans often. They will most likely look you over to see if you pose a threat. Male walruses are often territorial however the females often are not. They often eat fish, small crustaceans, shellfish, & sea cucumbers. Adult Walruses can eat anywhere from 3% to 6% of their total body fat in a single day. They eat twice a day & can eat up to 6,000 clams in one feeding session. They are not cannibalistic in any form. Their metabolism has been documented to change as a result of climate change. Their metabolism now steadily growing higher. This will most likely continue as climate change happens. They do not have very many natural predators due to their size, tusks & choice of habitat. The only 2 main natural predators that they have are Polar Bears & Killer whales. They are currently classified as Vulnerable under the IUCN red list. This indicates that their population is declining but not at a rapid rate. It is estimated there are currently 250,000 Walruses currently left on Earth. Walruses are strong-bodied & have a very thick, tough hide that can be an inch thick. The most distinctive feature of walruses, both male and female, is their two ivory tusks, which are long upper canine teeth that grow throughout the walrus’s life. The actual purpose of these tusks is so that the walrus can use them to penetrate the ice in order to heave themselves out of water. They also use it to poke holes in the ice in order to create breathing holes so they don’t lose oxygen. They are very rarely found in deep water & tend to stay aboard ice floats or on the surface of the water. Humans tend to not capture these creatures alive, instead they mostly kill them before they take them for their purposed. The Mating Cycles, Procedures, Practices, & Tactics Of The Common Atlantic Walrus Walruses mate via sexual reproduction. They breed most often in the water however occasionally they have been observed to mate on land. They are seen to be monogamous as during the mating season the female will only mate with one male. However, this could just mean that the females are monogamous to a different male every mating season. The males will mate with many different females every mating season. They are not hermaphroditic usually however occasionally some due appear with male & female organs. Male walruses also have penis bones. These bones can reach a meter long. The females do give birth through live birth. Their current known gestation period is 15-16 months. The females reach sexual maturity at approximately 6-7 years old. The females don’t produce children until about 10 years of age. The males reach full maturity at 10-14 years old. They do not appear to have a specific age at which fertility is the highest. The females will have a baby every 2 to 4 mating seasons after reaching maturity. They usually have 1 baby every pregnancy however twins are possible. However, having twins is somewhat uncommon in the arctic populations of walruses. The baby walrus will be kept with the mother. The mother will protect her calf very aggressively, she will also have her calf ride on her back through the water in order to be safe from potential threats. The Distribution Of The Common Atlantic Walrus There are 2 main species of walruses. The Laptev walrus is currently questioned as to its status as a walrus. However, we will only be discussing the Atlantic walrus, not the Pacific walrus. Atlantic walruses are commonly found in most northern areas of the world. They are found in the northern territories & in Nunavut which both belong to Canada. They are also commonly found in the areas around northeastern & northwestern Greenland. On & around the archipelago of Svalbard they are found in high concentrations. They usually stick to colder temperatures, this is most likely due to their physical build which has a lot of blubber. In any other environment that is not in these northern areas, their blubber can cause severe overheating. These areas are also heavily protected under international fishing laws which provide a kind of safe haven. They are not found in Alaska or near Alaskan areas. They are also not found in Iceland. They are not found in mainland Russia, however, they are found in the Russian archipelago of Novaya Zemlya. In these areas, they are mostly left alone by humans which is why they are now observed in such high quantities. The 2 maps shown above depict the areas in which Atlantic walruses are documented. The Scientific Detailing Of The Common Atlantic Walrus Walruses are some of the most interesting creatures due to one unique aspect, their tusks. Walruses have huge canines that stick out of their mouths that we know as tusks. The exact use of these is to haul themselves out of the water by penetrating the ice. This will be touched on later in this section of the article. It is not documented how many bones they have. Their molars are rather flat & stubby in order to grind crustaceans. This can also be observed in manatees. Their tusks are their only sharp teeth & they are not meant for hunting purposes. They usually do not eat very large animals which is why their teeth are meant for grinding. The Arctic population is not often documented to be born with abnormalities in their bones or their organs. The males do have 2 specialized organs that help them attract a mate. They have 2 air sacs which are located in the upper chest & head which they can inflate on demand. This organ is only found in the males. Common Atlantic walruses today as we know them evolved from land animals. This can modernly be seen by their ability to crawl at high speeds on land. At the time of publishing their scientific name is Odobenus Rosmarus. Their phylum is known as Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either in adulthood or as juveniles. Over 60,000 species are categorized under Chordata at the time of publishing. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is known as Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity for fur or hair, & three middle ear bones. Their order is Carnivora which is a monophyletic order of placental mammals. These mammals have all evolved in ways to specialize in eating fish. This order is the 5th largest order of mammals & has at the time of publishing, at least 279 species categorized under it. Their clade is Pinnipedia, meaning they are Pinnipeds. Pinnipeds are a heavily distributed & extremely diverse clade of semiaquatic species & marine mammals. Their family is known as Obodenidae. Obodenidae is a diverse family of pinnipeds, however, the only living species classified under this is the Walrus. Their genus is Odobenus. Gallery Directories / Credits https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/walrus#RelationshipwithHumans https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=walrus.main https://wildfocusexpeditions.com/what-is-a-walrus/ https://seaworld.org/animals/all-about/walrus/classification/ https://oceana.org/marine-life/walrus/ https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/walrus https://mmru.ubc.ca/wp-content/pdfs/Rosen%202021.pdf https://slate.com/technology/2015/11/animal-respiration-walrus-frog-and-butt-breathing-turtle.html BioExpeditionhttps://www.bioexpedition.com › w...Walrus Evolution Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Todays article will discuss the history of a small Massachusetts town & bay known as Ipswich & Ipswich bay. The bay was named after the town. The town has a long & twisting history that dates back to the pilgrim days. 2 tribes of indigenous also occupied space around Ipswich bay. However only 1 was mainly concentrated around Ipswich. The history was widely dictated by the pilgrim age as this is when it got most of its population. Ipswich bay is on the northern area of Massachusetts next to Cape Ann. It exists within Essex County. There are about 17 large towns along its coast. It is not to diverse in marine life however the creatures that do live here thrive in this environment. It is full of nutrients with many different conservation projects underway at many various times, this makes it extremely appealing to certain species. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Ipswich bay & the town of ipswich, Ipswich’s surrounding aboriginals, the disaster history, a segment on the Ipswich economy, & finally a section on how the people of Ipswich utilized the marine resources at hand. Ipswich has some of the best original preserved puritan architecture. With that being said, let’s delve into this sleepy bay-front town. The Discovery Of Ipswich Bay & The Town Of Ipswich & The History Of Ipswich Bay & The Town Of Ipswich Before American Colonization It is debated as to how long the area has been inhabited. Thanks to carbon dating we have found artifacts from the Paleo-Indian era which have been dated to 9000 years ago. These artifacts were mainly discovered along what is now known as Great Neck. These have pointed evidence to a settlement build by the Native American in bull brook. There were originally 2 documented Native American tribes that existed along Ipswich bay. However the main one was the Agawams. It was the Agawams that would have built the settlement in Bull brook. Bull brook modernly exists in Ipswich. The Agawams most likely did not have much outside relevancy or relationships as they were not mentioned by surrounding tribes. After this point not much else is documented to have happened in this area. The next large thing on record is the founding of the organized town of Ipswich. After American Colonization The 17th Century Ipswich was discovered by the Europeans & founded by John Winthrop the younger who purchased it from the Agawam indigenous peoples. It was discovered in the year of 1630. A total of 11 original ships including Winthrops Ship the Arbella sailed with families to the location. The exact number for this was not released to the public. On June 12th 1630 Chief Masconomet who was sagamore of the Agawam tribe of indigenous peoples, met with John Winthrop the younger. This was recorded in Winthrop’s diary however the language barrier that they had was not mentioned & the way that they communicated is not mentioned either. After this, instead of exiting & settling in at what is now Ipswich, they decided to go down south where newly prepared buildings awaited them in the new city of Charlestown. Due to the winter, poor insulation, & not enough food a few hundred colonists died. They also experienced their first nor’easter which cost them crops, & some people limbs, as well as houses destroyed by the fires they kept burning for many nights. A nor’easter or northeaster is an extra tropical cyclone that appears often along the eastern cost of the continental U.S.A. They only occur in the northwestern Atlantic ocean. A key trait of them is their mostly forming in Massachusetts. As Winthrop was giving the last remaining handfuls of grains, the supply ship known as Lyon finally appeared in the Boston harbour. Without the Lyon many families would have starved death. Using Lyon, Winthrop’s wife Margaret & her children were able to sail to Massachusetts from England. John the Younger resided with his father & stepmother until the year of 1633, when he resolved to settle in the land that the Agawam tribe of indigenous people owned. He did this with the permission of the General Court Of Massachusetts. A captain known as John Smith wrote about the land in the year of 1614. He gave it high praise & said that it was "an excellent habitation, being a good & safe harbour." This praise may have altered Winthrops decision. In 1633 Winthrop sailed to what is now Ipswich harbour & began to settle the land. He brought a total of 12 men along with him to settle the area. These men were known as: Winthrop Were William Clerk, , Robert Coles, Thomas Howlet, John Biggs, John Gage, Thomas Hardy, William Perkins, John Thorndike, William Sergeant, & three others whose names are undocumented. These men sailed to what is now Ipswich harbour. Ipswich was officially documented as incorporated on August 5th, 1634. It was originally called Aggawam after the tribe of indigenous peoples that once lived here. It later was named Ipswich after the historic Ipswich that exists in Suffolk, England. A man known as Nathaniel Ward, who was an assistant pastor in town from the years 1634 to 1636, wrote the first code of laws for Massachusetts. He later went on to publish the religious/political work “ The Simple Cobbler of Aggawam in America” in England. In the year 1638, Chief Masconomet entered into a contract with John Winthrop the Younger for the purchase of the land that Ipswich stood upon for. There is no documentation of any Agawam resistance to the colonization either at Charlestown or at Agawam (Ipswich). However there is documentation of devastating epidemics among the Agawam indigenous peoples in the area in approximately 1617 & again in 1633. The cause of these epidemics were what is classified as virgin soul epidemics. Pioneers had many occupational choices as Ipswich was just founded, some popular occupations were farmers, fisherman, shipbuilders & traders. The tides from the nearby Ipswich River provided hydropower for mills, & salt marshes supplied hay & eelgrass for new livestock. A wide cottage industry was developed & in lace-making became extremely popular at this time. A style known as Ipswich Lave which was unique to Ipswich was beginning to be produced. The only known hand-made bobbin lace that was produced commercially in the U.S.A was made here. However, 1687, Ipswich residents, led by the Reverend known as John Wise, protested a new tax imposed by the then governor Massachusetts Sir Edmund Andros. They then proceeded to argue about it causing incredibly high tension. The result was citizens being jailed & high political tension. Then Andros was recalled to England in year of 1689, & the new British sovereigns, William the III & Mary the II, issued colonists another charter. The rebellion gave the town the nickname of the "Birthplace of American Independence". The 19th Century Large clipper ships bypassed Ipswich in favor of the seaports in areas with deeper waters. These areas were most popularly Salem, Newburyport, Quincy, & Boston. The town remained a primary fishing and farming community with not much income overall, this led to many residents living in older homes they could not afford to replace. Many of these workers were immigrant workers from all around the world. The lack of money for updating infrastructure left Ipswich with a considerable inventory of early architecture types which went out of date. In the year of 1822, a stocking manufacturing machine that was smuggled out of England arrived at Ipswich, this violating a British ban on exporting such technology. This led to the community being gradually developed as a milling town. In the year of 1828, the institute of Ipswich Female Seminary was established. In the year of 1868, Amos A. Lawrence established the Ipswich Hosiery Mills beside what is now Ipswich river. This went on to become the nation's largest stocking mill by the turn of the 20th century. What may be the last documented witchcraft trial in North America was held in Ipswich in 1878. In the Ipswich witchcraft trial, member of the Christian Science religon was accused of using his alleged mental powers to harm others in the town, this included a spinster living in the town. The 20th Century In the year of 1910, Richard T. Crane Jr. of Chicago, the business magnate owner of Crane Plumbing, bought the estate of Castle Hill, which is a drumlin along Ipswich Bay. He hired Olmsted Brothers, successors to Fredrick Law Olmsted to landscape his 3,500-acre estate, and engaged the Boston architectural firm known as Shepley, Rutan Coolidge to design, an Italian Renaissance Revival style villa the along the summit. A grande allée, 160 feet (49 meters) wide and lined with statuary would run the half mile from house to sea. Unfortunately his wife, Florence, loathed the building. Allegedly Crane promised that if she still disliked it in 10 years, he would replace it. In 1913 a major strike took place at Ipswich Hosiery mills. The cause of this was unfair wages with the average wage being 6.50 USD per week. It ended in a violent riot & unfortunately a 27 year old woman lost her life in the chaos. In 1928, a new 59-room mansion designed by Chicago architect David Adler in the English Stuart style stood in its place, called the Great House. At Mrs. Crane's death in 1949, the entire property was bequeathed to The Trustees of Reservations, which uses it as a venue for concerts and weddings. The town government was reformed in 1950 with the acceptance of the Town Manager Charter. This charter was rescinded by the voters, regained, and lost again. Voters adopted the present Town Manager-Selectmen Charter in 1967. The 21st Century In 2012 Ipswich hired its first female Town Manager, Robin Crosbie, who served until her retirement in 2018. The Aboriginals From The Ipswich Area Agawam Indigenous Peoples Unfortunately, the Agawam tribe of indigenous peoples did not write much down & were not well documented. They also were not discussed by other nearby tribes. They did have their own spoken language that unfortunately is now a dead language & is completely unknown due to time. They seemed to have a system in which you would have different regions as sort of sovereign states. Each individual chapter of the tribe would be ruled by a sachem decided off hereditary. They were mainly concentrated throughout Northern Massachusetts. However they were also found in New England. They made peace with the colonies & lived along side them rather peacefully. It unfortunately, is not known how long this tribe has existed for. The only documented sachem of the Agawam tribe of indigenous peoples was Masconomet. The Most Destructive Natural & Man Caused Disasters Of Ipswich Bay Unfortunately there have been no documented major disasters that have taken place in Ipswich. Any disasters that did have been undocumented or have not been released to the public domain. Ipswich Bay’s Real Estate & Economic Issues Ipswich is a rather middle class town. Their 2020 median household income was 72,452 USD. Their poverty rate was relatively low at 9.01%. The median property value was approximately 437,700 USD. Their main income is mostly from their historic tourism & commercial fishing. Other then that they are extremely economically stable as a city. How The People Of Ipswich Utilized Their Marine Resources Many of the people of Ipswich use the bay for commercial & personal fishing. Hydropower is also a common use that can be found out of both the bay & the river. Many of the people use the areas for commercial & personal boating as well. Ipswich bay has very many uses for both the locals & the tourists who visit the area. Often fisherman can be spotted along the local piers for their individual purposes. Total Time Line Of Ipswich 9,000 Years Ago - Agawams built the first documented settlement in Bull Brook 1617 - Virgin soil epidemic happens among the Agawam tribe. 1630 - The land is discovered by Europeans however not settled yet, instead the settlers go toward Charleston. June 12th 1630 - Chief Masconomet meets with John Winthrop the younger. 1633 - John Winthrop finally settles the town of Ipswich with 12 main settlers. He does this with the men known as: These men were known as: Winthrop Were William Clerk, , Robert Coles, Thomas Howlet, John Biggs, John Gage, Thomas Hardy, William Perkins, John Thorndike, William Sergeant, & three others whose names are undocumented. 1633 - Virgin soil epidemic happens which devastates the Agawam tribe of indigenous peoples. August 5th 1634 - Ipswich is officially documented as incorporated. 1638 - The land is officially purchased from Chief Masconomet by John Winthrop the younger. 1687 - Tax law in Ipswich gets protested which results in citizens being jailed & high political tension. 1822 - Stocking manufacturing machine is smuggled out of England into Ipswich. This violates British law. This ended up leading to an incredibly successful stocking manufacturing mill known as Ipswich Hosiery Mill. 1828 - The Ipswich Female Seminary is officially established. 1868 - Amos A. Lawrence founds Ipswich Hosiery Mill is founded on the bank of the Ipswich river. This ended up becoming one of the nation’s largest hosiery manufacturers. 1878 - The last documented witchcraft trial in North America takes place. It is known as the Ipswich Witchcraft Trial. 1910 - Richard T. Crane Jr. of bought the estate of Castle Hill, which is a drumlin along Ipswich Bay. He then modified the estate & build multiple buildings on it. 1913 - Strike breaks out at Ipswich Hosiery mills over Unfair wages which ends in a violent riot & a 27 year old woman losing her life. 1928 - A 59 room mansion is constructed on it designed by Chicago architect David Adler. 1949 - The owners death bequeathed the property to the Trustees of Reservations who use it as a rentable venue. 1950 - The town government is reformed & reorganizes. 2012 - The first female town manager Robin Crosbie. She served as the town manager until her retirement. 2018 - Robin Crosbie retires from her role as town manager. Directories / Credits https://www.ipswichma.gov/ https://historicipswich.wordpress.com/ https://www.britannica.com/place/Ipswich-Massachusetts http://robinlull.com/garylull/Ipswich,_MA_Timeline_1601-1622.html https://ipswichhistory.com/ Local Historieshttps://localhistories.org › BlogA History of Ipswich https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/27-year-old-woman-died-1913-ipswich-mill-strike-never-get-justice/?amp=1 Prince, John (1888), Hurd, D. Hamilton (ed.), "Essex", History of Essex County, Massachusetts: with Biographical Sketches of Many of its Pioneers and Prominent Men , Philadelphia: J. W. Lewis & Co, vol. II, p. 1155 Gross, David M. (2014). 99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns . Picket Line Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-1490572741 . Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa