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A stunning Steller Sea lion colony, with a very large male in front. Credit to Andrey Giljov. This month's articles series will discuss... Admiralty Island, Alaska! Admiralty Island is an island in the Alexander Archipelago, in Southeast Alaska. The island is the 7th largest island in the United States, & the 132nd-largest island in the world. The nearest main city is Juneau, the state capital. The island has extremely few people, with a population density of 0.39 per square mile The total population is 650, which makes it so that the bears outnumber the humans 3:1. The island is famous for its large population of brown bears, & its beautiful canoeing areas. The island is approximately 2.59 nautical miles (2.980519 miles or 1.398488 kilometers) from mainland Alaska. Since the island's coast is so untouched by man, many marine animals migrate close to this island every year. The majority of oceanic animals don’t live here year-round though, as they tend to migrate further south in the winter to survive. There isn’t much seagrass around this area either, because the water temperatures make it very hard for anything to survive. One of the creatures that can survive though, is the Steller Sea Lion. The Steller Sealion is a species of Sea Lion found from Honshu, Japan, to Año Nuevo Island, California. They are found across the Bering Strait, & tend to stay in colder areas. The males are extremely fat, while the females are much slimmer looking, making it very easy to distinguish the sex. They are not friendly animals, & can be extremely aggressive if their children are threatened by any source. For this reason, people should generally avoid interaction with these creatures unless it is necessary. It is also illegal in the United States to interfere with these creatures in their natural habitats. They tend to congregate on rocks, & socialize this way. They are the largest of all the eared seals, & the third largest of all the pinnipeds. In this article, we will discuss the Discovery & Life of the Steller Sea Lion, the Mating Procedures, Practices, Cycles, Tactics, & Strategies of the Steller Sea Lion, the Distribution of the Steller Sea Lion, & the Scientific Detailings of the Steller Sea Lion. With that being said, let us delve into this massive oceanic creature. The Discovery & Life Of The Steller Sea  Lion The Steller Sea Lion was first described in the year 1776, & was first described by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber. The species was named after Georg William Steller, who was one of the first people to interact with them in 1741. The males are an astounding 11 feet (3.3528 meters), while the females only reach about 9.5 feet (2.8956 meters). There is a massive sexual dimorphism between the two sexes, with the males being approximately 2.5 U.S. tons (2267.96 kilograms), while the females only reach 800 pounds (362.874 kilograms). The females can live for up to 30 years, while the males are only able to live for up to 20. Sea lions are brilliant creatures, behaving much like cats at times. Sea lions can perform tricks, remember commands, & have a long-term memory of at least 3.5 months. Usually, though, they aren’t very agreeable creatures, which is why they are much like cats. During a study in which two flower pots were placed in front of a female sea lion named Zwerg, & she was rewarded if she touched the instructed flower pot, it was discovered that Zwerg would pick the correct flower pot 83% of the time. This experiment was conducted by Lauren Highfill, in the Schönbrunn Zoo. They are also able to show affection towards humans they hold in high regard, & each other. It is unknown how long exactly this species has existed, but it has to be a minimum of 120,000 years, & a maximum of 220,000 years based on fossil records of similar sea lion species. These creatures are naturally very timid, & they do not usually interact with humans in the wild. They can be aggressive towards other sea lions, & even humans if provoked enough. Sea Lions have many different captive populations around the globe, which would prevent them from going extinct if some disease were to break out. They are territorial, but they usually don’t begin holding one territory until at least the age of 9 years old. They are rather social creatures & usually rest in extremely large groups. They sleep by hauling themselves onto rocks, & sunbathing as they nap. They rarely sleep underwater, as that could result in drowning. They swim by rapidly pulling their front flippers forward & back. At top speed, they swim at top speeds of 17 miles per hour (27.3588 kilometers per hour). This species is rather agile, as individuals swim hundreds of miles each month. Their diet is primarily fish-based, with over 100 species of fish comprising their nutritional base. The most common species of fish they consume are Pacific Cod, Walleye Pollock, Atka Mackerel, & Pacific Salmon. They eat between 5% to 8% of their body weight in fish per day. Usually, they hunt at least 1 mile (1.60934 kilometers) away from the coast. Usually, they will forage for multiple days on end to maintain their body weight. They locate food by feeling the ripples with their whiskers. Occasionally, they will seek out commercial fish nets to steal already caught fish from the nets. This is rare, but it has happened before. Once the fish is caught, it will promptly be swallowed whole. They are not cannibalistic in any way, shape, or form. Their metabolism is fairly fast, similar to that of seals. Usually, they hunt strictly nocturnally. They have very few predators apart from orcas, & sharks due to how massive they are. Steller sea lions have a bulky build & a very thick neck with longer fur that resembles a lion's mane, hence the name "sea lion." Their skin ranges from a pale yellow to a light grey color. Sea lions also shed their fur every year, so they may look different depending on the season. Their current IUCN Red List Status is Near Threatened, with the last population assessment being on February 4th, 2016. Their population trend is increasing, with approximately 81,327 mature individuals. Conservationists are actively observing the population of Steller Sea Lions, & making sure that the population makes a proper recovery.  The Mating Strategies, Tactics, Procedures, Cycles, & Practices Of The Steller Sea Lion The Steller Sea Lion breeds via sexual reproduction. This species has two distinct sexes, & is not hermaphroditic. Their breeding system is polygamous. Their mating season is between June & August. They tend to mature between 3-7 years of age sexually but don’t usually hold stable breeding territories until 9. Their gestational period is similar to that of humans, being approximately 9 months. Fertility for this species usually peaks when they are at the halfway point of their lives.   The females will court the males by lying in submissive poses in front of them. After the couple decides to breed with each other, they will breed in a safe location. Usually, only 1 pup is had per pregnancy due to the size of the pups. The pups will be weaned for approximately 1 year before beginning to consume solid foods, & beginning to mature into young adulthood. The mothers will care for these babies, & defend them fiercely from any threat. Approximately 25 days after giving birth, the females will breed again, & give birth every May or June.  The Distribution Of The Steller Sea Lion  The Steller Sea Lion is found from Honshu, Japan, to Año Nuevo Island, California. They are migrational, as they migrate south in the winter to avoid the frigid conditions. They tend to prefer extremely cold waters, & rocky coastal areas. Usually, they are in either sandy/rocky beach areas or wharves. Oftentimes, they can be seen sleeping on wharf docks. During Hunting Season, they will dive to extreme depths to hunt fish more effectively. The world record deepest dive for this species is approximately 1,400 feet. Between the 1970s & 2010, there was a mysterious decline in the population of adult female sea lions, that has been not entirely explained. Due to this issue, they were placed on the endangered species list in 1990. Thankfully, the population did replenish, which led to them being officially removed from the list in November of 2013. The Scientific Details of The Steller Sea Lion The oldest fossil of this species was discovered to be approximately 800,000 years old. This fossil was male, & named GKZ-N 00001. This fossil was found in Kanazawa, Japan, which is located along the western coast of Japan's Honshu island. The Steller Sea lion has a bone structure similar to that of humans, in that they both have finger bones. Though they are not visible, the Steller Sea Lion has finger bones that are in their forelimbs. They have between 34 & 38 teeth, used for tearing parts of the fish in order to make the fish more digestible. Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is known as Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity oforfur or hair, & three middle ear bones. Their order is Carnivora which is a monophyletic order of placental mammals. These mammals have all evolved in ways to specialize in eating fish.  This order is the 5th largest order of mammals & has at the time of publishing, at least 279 species categorized under it. Their clade is Pinnpedia, meaning they are Pinnipeds. Pinnipeds are a heavily distributed & extremely diverse clade of semiaquatic species & marine mammals. Their family is Otariidae, which is a family of Eared Seals, with approximately 15 extant species. All Creatures in this family are strangely enough, not found in the North Atlantic. All species in this family have visible ear flaps, instead of ear holes. Their Genus is Eumetopias, which is a monotypic genus. A monotypic genus is a genus in which there is only one species. The binomial name of the Steller Sea Lion is Eumetopias Jubatus.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Steller Sea Lion” Written By Unknown & Published at An Unknown date. Published by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Retrieval Date: September 27th, 2023.  https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/steller-sea-lion Citation No. 2: “Sea Lion Smarts” Written by S. Dingfelder, & Published in 2007. Published by the American Psychological Association. Retrieval Date: September 27th, 2023.  https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2007/03/sealion Citation No. 3: “Steller Sea Lion - Biology Fast Facts” Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown date. Published by the Marine Mammal Research Unit at the University of British Columbia. Retrieval Date: September 27th, 2023.  https://mmru.ubc.ca/biology/steller-sea-lion-fast-facts Citation No. 4: “Steller Sea Lion” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown date. Published By the IUCN Red List. Retrieval Date: September 27th, 2023. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/8239/45225749 Citation No. 5: “The oldest record of the Steller sea lion  Eumetopias jubatus  (Schreber, 1776) from the early Pleistocene of the North Pacific” Written by Nahoko Tzuzuku & Naoki Kohno, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Center For Biotechnology Information. Retrieval Date: September 27th, 2023.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7456534/ Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast STEMScribe Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A determined Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta), swimming through an electric blue ocean. This month's article series will discuss the island of Yakushima, Japan. Yakushima, Japan is located in the Kagoshima Prefecture. The island is in Southern Japan, & is located in the Ōsumi Islands archipelago. The island is known for its beautiful cedar wood forests, macaque monkeys, deer, Yaku Sagi trees, & their loggerhead turtle sights. Approximately 40% of all Loggerhead turtles coming into Japan are coming to Nagata Beach, on northern Yakushima Island. A big reason for the island being able to host such wonderful creatures is because the Yakushima National Park takes up 42% of the island. Part of this national park also includes a marine reserve, which hosts some of the loggerhead turtles. The name Yakushima translated into English means “Medicine Island”, due to the medicinal properties of the herbs there. Yakushima Island is approximately 285.58 nautical miles (328.639595 miles or 528.89416 kilometers) from mainland South Korea. Yakushima island is approximately 194.9 square miles (504.78868 square kilometers), of which 83.807 square miles (217.059134 square kilometers) is a National Park. One of the major attractions of Yakushima Island is the Loggerhead Turtle. The Loggerhead Turtle is a species of marine turtle known for their strong jaws, used for breaking conch shells. This species is the world’s largest hard-shelled turtle, as of 2025. They can be distinguished from other turtles by their massive heads, & proportionally smaller bodies. These turtles usually come to Yakushima island, to nest on Nagata Beach. This nesting usually occurs between May & August of each year. It is recommended that humans do not attempt to observe these baby turtles up close, as this will add stress to their journey. In this article, we will discuss the Discovery & Life, the Mating Procedures, Practices, Cycles, Tactics, & Strategies, Distribution, & Scientific Detailings of the Loggerhead Turtle. With that being said, let us delve into the Caretta Caretta. The Discovery & Life Of Loggerhead Turtle The Loggerhead Turtle was discovered in 1758, by Swedish Taxonomist, Botanist, & Zoologist Carl Linnaeus. They are on average 3 feet (0.9144 meters) long, & 250 pounds (113.398 kilograms). Their life span is similar to humans with theirs lasting between 70 & 80 years. The oldest loggerhead turtle is approximately 91 years old, & named Big Bertha. Loggerhead turtles are intelligent for sea creatures, but ranking their intelligence in terms of IQ is not possible. They have powerful senses of communication, & excellent directional senses. They are also able to show affection, & feelings of attachment. When held in captivity, they can recognize their caretakers, by both sight & sound. Sea turtles as we know them have existed for approximately 110 million years, but it is unclear how long this specific species has existed. They usually do not interact with humans in the wild, & are rather timid creatures. Generally, they tend to live a solitary lifestyle until they breed. Aggressive behaviors are not common for males or females, & are usually only showcased during mating season. For this reason, they are occasionally caught illegally for their shells, meat, & a variety of other reasons. Usually, when they are caught though, it is accidental. Loggerhead turtles are territorial creatures, & will fight with other turtles for a specific patch of land. Loggerhead turtles swim by using their front flippers as paddles, & their back flippers to steer themselves. They can swim an astonishing 22 miles per hour (35.4056 kilometers per hour) if they are frightened. They are extremely agile creatures, & can maneuver themselves very easily. These turtles can sleep by slowing down their heart rate so that they don’t need to surface for air as frequently. They usually sleep for 4 to 7 hours at a time, & also sleep in deeper oceanic areas. The Loggerhead turtle primarily consumes bivalves, horseshoe crabs, jellyfish, small fish, & various marine flora. They are not cannibalistic in any form. They usually consume about 73% of their body weight to survive, even though they have a slow metabolism. Generally, they are diurnal hunters, meaning they hunt. They recognize food largely by smell, as they are born with the ability to recognize the smell of shrimp. Adult loggerhead turtles are preyed on by sharks, & humans. Loggerhead turtles have large heads with brown, patterned bodies. Their top shell has an almost heart-shaped pattern, & is a red-brown color. Their bottom shell is usually beige or white. For their beautiful shell pattern & their interesting behaviors, there are many different captive populations of this species around the globe. This species is currently listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Their population trend has been listed as decreasing, & their last population assessment was on August 23rd, 2015. It was first listed as a threatened species in the year 1978. As of 2025, there are approximately 50,000 Loggerhead Sea Turtles.  The Mating Practices, Procedures, Cycles, Strategies, & Tactics Of The Loggerhead Turtles  The Loggerhead turtle breeds via sexual reproduction. This species has two distinct sexes, & is not hermaphroditic. Their breeding system is polygamous, meaning that both sexes take multiple partners. The majority of Loggerhead turtles sexually mature at 35 years of age, but they can take up to 39 years to mature. They tend to become most fertile after the age of 40, & this tends to go down after 50. Their average incubation period is approximately 60 days. Breeding does occur year-round, but it primarily takes place from Late March to Early June. This season aligns with the hatching/nesting season which is from April to September. Each clutch is between 40 eggs, & 200 eggs. Every breeding season, the female will lay 2 to 5 clutches, in 2-week intervals. The female will return to the shoreline where she was born to lay her eggs. Once the children are had, only approximately 1 in 5,000 of them will survive to adulthood. These babies are helpless against predators & currents, & their jaws aren’t fully formed yet so hunting is also difficult. The mothers do not do much after giving birth to the clutch, & just simply swim off into the ocean after laying them. These hatchlings will fight their way to the water, & unfortunately will not always make it. The temperature of the sand that they are hatched in determines what the sex of the turtle will be. Higher temperatures will produce more females, while lower temperatures will produce more males. Usually, these hatchlings are between 2 to 3 centimeters long.  The Distribution Of The Loggerhead Turtle  Loggerhead turtles are found all around the globe. They are currently known to be found in the Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, & Mediterranean Sea. They are migratory animals, & tend to migrate from the Pacific Coast to Australia & Japan. This usually is an 8,000-mile (12,874.75 kilometers) journey. Loggerhead Turtles usually are found in reefed areas of the ocean or coastal areas. They are also known to be found in saltwater estuaries occasionally. As of 2025, they are found as far as Newfoundland, & as far south as Argentina.  The Scientific Details of The Loggerhead Turtle By far, the most intriguing part about the turtle is its shell. Both the upper & lower shells are primarily composed of Keratin, which is the same thing that composes your hair & nails. Unlike land turtles, loggerhead turtles are unable to retract into their shells. The reason for this is that there simply is not enough room in the shell for the entire head of the loggerhead turtle. Though Loggerhead turtles have massive beaks, they have no teeth. The bone structure of the turtle is extremely interesting. The flippers of the loggerhead turtle have 5 finger bones, even though they are not visible from outside. The shell of the Turtle contains the vertebrae, which is why it is important to never fracture a Loggerhead turtle's Shell. The Loggerhead turtle is considered a keystone species, meaning that it is central to oceanic ecosystems. This also indicates that Many different creatures depend on the loggerhead turtle for their survival. These creatures are namely barnacles, algae, & occasionally small crabs. These species will live ontop oon top loggerhead turtle shell. Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Reptilia, meaning that they are cold-blooded, which is a universal characteristic of all Reptilians. There are approximately 10,000 reptilian species alive at the time of publishing. Their order is Testudines, which is the order that all turtles are classified under. A universal characteristic of all species under this order is that they breathe air, & don’t lay eggs underwater. Approximately 300 extant species are categorized under this order. Their family is Cheloniidae, which consists of 6 species. All species classified under this family have stronger front flippers than back flippers. Their genus is Caretta. Their binomial name is Caretta Caretta.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Loggerhead Sea Turtle”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Wildlife Federation. Retrieval Date: October 3rd, 2023.  https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Reptiles/Sea-Turtles/Loggerhead-Sea-Turtle Citation No. 2: “Ask An Expert: How Long Can Loggerhead Sea Turtles Live?”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published South Carolina Aquarium. Retrieval Date: October 3rd, 2023.  https://scaquarium.org/sea-turtle-lifespan Citation No. 3: “What are possible causes of loggerhead turtle biting swimmers?, Written By Draško Holcer, Tina Belaj, & Bojan Lazar, & published on June 8th of 2023. Published By the Blue World Institute. Retrieval Date: October 3rd, 2023.  https://www.blue-world.org/what-are-possible-causes-of-loggerhead-turtle-biting-swimmers Citation No. 4: “Loggerhead Turtle: Caretta Caretta”, Written by Unknown, & Last Updated on August 23rd, 2015. Published by the IUCN Red List. Retrieval Date: October 3rd, 2023.  https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3897/119333622 Citation No. 5: “Loggerhead Sea Turtle: Caretta Caretta”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the South Carolina Marine Turtle Conservation Program. Retrieval Date: October 3rd, 2023.   https://www.dnr.sc.gov/seaturtle/cc Citation No. 6: “Life Of A Loggerhead” Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the Sea Turtle Patrol of Hilton Head Island. Retrieval Date: October 3rd, 2023.   https://www.seaturtlepatrolhhi.org/life-of-a-loggerhead-turtle Citation No. 7: “Loggerhead Turtle: Caretta Caretta”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Retrieval Date: October 3rd, 2024. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/loggerhead-turtle Citation No. 8: “Can Sea Turtles Retract Their Heads?”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown date. Published By the Olive Ridley Project. Retrieval Date: October 3rd, 2023. https://oliveridleyproject.org/ufaqs/can-sea-turtles-retract-their-heads Citation No. 9: “The Anatomy of Sea Turtles”, Written by Dr. Jeanette & Published at an Unclear date. Published By Published by the South Carolina Marine Turtle Conservation Program. Retrieval Date: October 5th, 2023.  https://www.dnr.sc.gov/seaturtle/Literature/TM_470_Wyneken.p Citation No. 10: “Loggerhead Sea Turtle”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Geographic Magazine. Retrieval Date: October 5th, 2023.  https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/facts/loggerhead-sea-turtle Citation No. 11: “Loggerhead Turtle”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Oceana. Retrieval Date: October 5th, 2023.  https://oceana.org/marine-life/loggerhead-turtle/ Citation No. 12: “Basic Biology of the Loggerhead (Caretta caretta)” Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the Widecast Turtle Conservation Network. Retrieval Date: October 5th, 2023.  https://www.widecast.org/biology/loggerhead/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast STEMScribe Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A gorgeous Sarcastic Fringehead opening its jaws & showing off its fangs. This month's article series shall discuss Monterey Bay, California, United States Of America. Monterey Bay is located on the Monterey Peninsula in Northern California. It is also located against the Pacific Ocean, making it a prime spot for migrating whales. The bay is known for its historical sites, kayaking, museums, hiking, & the Monterey Bay Aquarium. Monterey Bay is approximately 25 miles across, & has many, many different kinds of marine features. Additionally, Monterey Bay is one of the few places in California where the sport of Abalone diving is permitted, & done. Since it is close to many metropolitan cities, & has many different museums, it is extremely popular among tourists. The bay with the city along it is also the capital in oceanic science, for both its environment, & the laboratories that are built along the coast. It has many historical sites as well, due to it functioning as the capital of Alta California under Spanish, & Mexican rule, & was founded in the year 1770. The bay is extremely biodiverse, & which makes it a favorite among marine creature watchers. The most popular of these creatures to watch are Sea Otters, California Sea Lions, Whales, & Dolphins. One of the less popular creatures for fair reason, is the Sarcastic Fringehead. The Sarcastic Fringehead is quite possibly the most peculiar-looking creature in the entirety of Monterey Bay. The reason for this is largely their mouth. Their mouth can open to be twice as large as their head, in a terrifying manner. They are also extremely temperamental creatures, & are rather violent. If a human were to enter their territory, they would open their mouth to reveal 2 rows of teeth. If the human does not surrender & retreat, the Sarcastic Fringehead will open & close its mouth in quick succession. As a human does not put their fingers near their mouths, they won’t attack. If they were larger, they most likely would attack, as their size seems to be the primary factor limiting their attacks on humans. In this article, we will discuss the Discovery & Life, the Mating Procedures, Practices, Cycles, Tactics, & Strategies, the Distribution, & the Scientific Detailings of the Sarcastic Fringehead. With that being said, let us delve into this otherworldly creature. The Discovery & Life Of The Sarcastic Fringehead The Sarcastic Fringehead was discovered & aptly named by Charles Frédéric Girard. It was described in the year 1858. The Sarcastic Fringehead can grow up to 30 centimeters, (11.811 inches) but usually only grow to 25.4 centimeters (10 inches). 300 grams (10.5822 ounces) is the average weight for individuals of both sexes in this species. On average, they will live to 6 years of age, but they can live longer. Unfortunately, the intelligence of this species is extremely understudied due to a lack of interest. They don’t seem to be able to distinguish between different humans, though, or be able to make decisions based upon past experiences. Sarcastic fringeheads typically don’t interact with humans unless humans enter their territory. They are extremely aggressive, as well as territorial. They will often challenge other fringe fish who visit their territories by unfurling their mouth as wide open as possible & see whose mouth is wider. Individuals are extremely solitary, & seem to dislike one another with a passion. Aside from mating, they don’t interact with each other. They seem to swim by propelling themselves forward with the use of their tail, & they keep themselves buoyant with swim bladders. Though their cruising speed is much lower, their maximum speed is 4 miles per hour. Sarcastic Fringeheads are fairly agile creatures, as they need to consume many squid eggs to survive. Even Sarcastic fringeheads require relaxing sleep, & typically sleep by floating in place, & keeping part of their brain awake to make sure that they don’t get consumed. They seem to be diurnal, meaning they hunt during the day, & sleep at night. Their diet largely consists of squid eggs, as eggs are very nutrient-dense. They tend to consume at least 13.6 times their body weight per year to stay alive. Information on their metabolic rate is unavailable as of publishing. They mainly locate food by sight & vibrational waves. Sharks are their primary threats, along with large fish. Usually, they have long brown bodies, with curved tales that have large ridged fins. Their massive mouths with pink & yellow lips unfurl to be twice the size of their heads. Typically they sport a green, red, or yellow mottled pattern on their skin as well. As of 2025, they are classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Listlist & have an Unknown population trend. The Mating Strategies, Procedures, Practices, Tactics, & Of The Sarcastic Fringehead The Sarcastic Fringehead breeds via sexual relations. Their breeding system seems to be polygamous, meaning that both sexes have multiple partners. This species has two distinct sexes, & is not hermaphroditic. \ Generally, they will breed from January to August. In breeding congregations, The males will compete for females' affection by seeing who has the largest mouth. The female shall observe, & carefully select her partner. Soon after, the new couple shall copulate. Once the female is ready to give birth, she will lay her eggs in a burrow for safekeeping. On average, she will lay 3,000 eggs. She will then swim off into the ocean, never to be seen again, while the father stays & guards the burrow. The father will guard these eggs until they are born, at which point he will leave. These eggs are up to 1.5 millimeters (0.0590551 inches) in diameter. The Distribution Of The Sarcastic Fringehead The Sarcastic Fringehead is only found from San Francisco, California to Baja California. They only inhabit the coastal zone, & have are rarely found deeper than 73 meters (239.501 feet). They tend to also only stay in places with rocky or sandy oceanic floors because finding places to burrow or places to live tends to be much easier in these areas They are also rarely found in areas that are less than 3 meters (9.84252 feet) deep. They do not seem to be migratory creatures, as their swimming is extremely erratic. Usually, they will live in containers that aren’t built by themselves, snail shells, & human debris are the most commonly used, as they are large & often in abundance. The larger the container is, the larger the Sarcastic Fringehead can fit into it. The Scientific Details Of The Sarcastic Fringehead Without a doubt, the most interesting feature of Sarcastic fringeheads is their strangely built mouth. This mouth is only possible due to the upper jaw bone being extremely long, which allows for flaring. They have 2 rows of sharp teeth in their mouth. Aside from their mouth, their main ways of sensing are through vibrations & chemical signals. Their reason for being called fringe heads is because of the tissue above their eyes, giving them a fringy appearance. Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Actinopterygii, which means that they are ray-finned fish. This also means that their actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements. This class comprises over 50% of living vertebrate species. Their order is Blenniformes. A universal trait of this order is that the tail fin is rounded, & the dorsal fin is continuous. Their family is Chaenopsidae. A characteristic of all the species in this family is that they all like to live in small tube-like structures. Their genus is Neoclinus. This genus has 11 species categorized under it. Their binomial name is Neoclinus Blanchardi. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Neoclinus Blanchardi: Sarcastic Fringehead” Written by Jennie Southern & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By The Animal Diversity Web. Retrieval Date: October 13th, 2023. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Neoclinus_blanchardi/ Citation No. 2: “Sarcastic Fringehead Facts” Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Fact Animal. Retrieval Date: October 13th, 2023. https://factanimal.com/sarcastic-fringehead/ Citation No. 3: “Sarcastic Fringehead”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published. By the International Union For Conservation Of Nature. Retrieval Date: October 13th, 2023. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/185133/1770082 Citation No. 4: “Sarcastic Fringehead: Neoclinus Blanchardi” Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Aquarium of the Pacific. Retrieval Date: October 13th, 2023. https://www.aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/species/sarcastic_fringehead Citation No. 5: “Sarcastic Fringehead” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Our Breathing Planet. Retrieval Date: October 13th, 2023. https://www.ourbreathingplanet.com/sarcastic-fringehead/amp/ Citation No. 6: “Weird & Wonderful Creatures: The Sarcastic Fringehead” Written By Maya Inamura & Published on August 11th, 2014. Published by the American Association for the Advancement in Science. Retrieval Date: October 13th, 2023. https://www.aaas.org/news/weird-wonderful-creatures-sarcastic-fringehead Citation No. 7: “Neoclinus Blanchardi Girard, 1858” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Fishbase. Retrieval Date: October 13th 2023. https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/summary/3740 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast STEMScribe Cash Daniels Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

This months article series will discuss the Bay Of Fundy, Canada! The Bay of Fundy is is a body of water separating New Brunswick from Nova Scotia, & rests along the Atlantic Ocean. The Bay is best known for having the highest tidal range in the world, meaning the largest difference between the low & high tide. The tide in the bay of fundy is enormous, being at least 52 feet high, possibly higher. The bay is theorized to be corrupted from the French word “fendu”, meaning split. The Bay of Fundy began forming 250 million years ago, & fully formed approximately 190 million years ago. It is currently filled with treacherous rapids, & beautiful rocky landscapes. The bay has an area of roughly 6,178 square miles (16000.95 square kilometers). The bay can get 787.402 feet (240 meters) deep, & is teeming with marine life. The Bay Of Fundy has many, many different ecosystems ranging from cold-water estuaries, to crashing rocky shorelines. Along with these, the bay is littered with sea caves that flood when the tide rises. In these caves, thousands of fossils from 300 million years ago lie. It is for this reason, that the Bay of Fundy is not only a UNESCO Global Geopark, but a UNESCO World Heritage Site. A gorgeous photograph of the Bay of Fundy at low-tide, at dusk. Credit to photographer Alan Kepler, Due to the fact that the bay is so large, we will not be covering any specific town along the bay, we will be covering the history of the bay itself. As we are covering the history of the bay itself, we will not have a section on the economy. The bay's history spans over 250 million years, back to when the super-continent of Pangaea was dividing. For the majority of this time, the bay was not filled with water, allowing fossils to form much more easily. Many maritime battles have been fought along this bay, such as the Seven Years' War. For all of its fascinating & beautiful traits, in 2014, the bay was made one of the natural wonders of the world. In this article, we will discuss the Prehistoric & Geologic History of the Bay of Fundy, the documented aboriginals of the Bay of Fundy, & the Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect the Bay of Fundy. With that being said, let us delve into the Bay of Fundy.  The History Of The Bay Of Fundy The Bay of Fundy first began forming 250 million years ago, when the supercontinent of Pangea began splitting & forming modern continents. As the supercontinent split, space between North America & Africa began forming, which eventually would form the Atlantic, & create a valley. 150 million years later, the tip of Nova Scotia fused with the U.S state of Maine, which would allow the bay to become a shallow lake. As the basin dried, harsh rain eroded the surrounding mountains, sending red rubble crashing to the bay shore. This also caused large deposits of sandstone to fall around the bay, which can still be seen at the Minas Basin. During the Triassic Period, nearby volcanic eruptions caused large amounts of basalt to be deposited around, which formed the jagged cliffs along the coast. One of the most common places to see the basalt is Cape Enrage, which is in New Brunswick. Following the end of the last glacial maximum, the Atlantic Ocean flooded the basin, & gave us the bay that we have today. The high tides of the bay have eroded the cliffside, making fossils from over 300 million years ago visible to humans at low tide. Additionally, the tides have eroded the rocks to create beautiful formations that kayakers & swimmers can go through. Two of the most notable rock formations are the Three Sisters Rocks, & the Hopewell Rocks.  The Documented Aboriginals Of The Bay Of Fundy The Mi’kmaq / Micmac Indigenous Peoples Tribe  The Mi’kmaq are a tribe that lived along the shores of The Bay of Fundy. They are also known as the Micmac. They have lived on the land for at least 10,000 years. They spoke the Eastern Algonquian Language, which is also known as Mi’kmaq. The Mi’kmaq would hunt Caribou & Moose in the winter, & shellfish with seals in the summer. They would become temporarily nomadic in the winter, & build conical wigwam structures to live in. As the seasons change, they would move accordingly to be able to hunt. These Wigwam structures would be covered in birch bark. In the summer months, housing varied, but was usually an oblong-like structure. Clothing-wise, women would wear dresses with fringe, as well as robes of fur, to keep warm in the winter. The political & social lives were very relaxed, & flexible. Their social lives were primarily organized around family. Modernly, their population is estimated at 14,000. The tribe’s official website is https://www.wabanakialliance.com/mikmaq-nation/ .  An illustration of 3 Mi'kmaq individuals in traditional dress. Credit to Freepik The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect The Bay Of Fundy Disaster No. 1: The Flood Of 1869  In 1869, the one of the highest ocean levels on Earth was recorded in the Bay Of Fundy. This water level was caused by the Saxby Gale Hurricane, which hit the region on October 4th of 1869. The storm caused the tides to rise to an astonishing 71 feet high, which has never been seen since. This flood damaged the local port, & affected many residential buildings. The hurricane caused 37 direct fatalities. This was by far, one of the most dangerous natural disasters to ever affect the Bay Of Fundy.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “The Bay Of Fundy”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Mining Association of Nova Scotia. Retrieval Date: November 6th, 2023.  https://notyourgrandfathersmining.ca/geo-bay-of-fundy Citation No. 2: “Saxby Gale - Maps & Stories”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Geographical Information Systems. Retrieval Date: November 7th, 2023.  https://gisjames.wordpress.com/2019/11/13/saxby-gale-maps-and-stories/ Citation No. 3: “Bay of Fundy”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. Retrieval Date: November 7th, 2023.  https://whsrn.org/whsrn_sites/bay-of-fundy/ Citation No. 4: “Mi’kmaq”, Written by the Editors of Britannica, & Published on July 20th, 1998. Published by Britannica. Retrieval Date: November 7th, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mikmaq Citation No. 5: “Mi’kmaw History - Overview”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Mi’kmaw Spirit. Retrieval Date: November 7th, 2023.  https://www.muiniskw.org/pgHistory0.htm Citation No. 6: “Bay of Fundy, Canada”,  Written By Mahmut, & Last Updated September 7th of 2023. Published By Geology Science. Retrieval Date: November 7th, 2023.  https://geologyscience.com/gallery/geological-wonders/bay-of-fundy-canada/?amp Citation No. 7: “Bay of Fundy”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by My Canada Trips. Retrieval Date: November 7th, 2023.  https://www.mycanadatrips.co.uk/bay-of-fundy/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A gorgeous portrait of Monique DeLeon by the seaside. Credit to Monique DeLeon. Recently, our head writer was immensely grateful to be able to sit down with Monique DeLeon, student curator at the Cabrillo Aquarium, to discuss her work & student leadership at the aquarium.  Monique DeLeon is an Aquarist, & the Head Student Curator at Cabrillo High School Aquarium in Southern California. In addition to this, she manages the Instagram & Facebook pages for the Aquarium, as well as the eclectic gift shop.  In today’s interview, we sit down with Monique to discuss this beautiful facility, the aquarium from a student perspective, the new tropical fish gallery set to be opened in late 2025, & her work at the aquarium, in a comprehensive 13-question-long interview.  Before delving into today’s interview, please note everything said has been edited for clarity, & that the opinions of our interviewee do not necessarily reflect the opinions & values of our organization. With that being said, let us delve into the contents of the interview!  The Contents Of The Interview  Questions About Her Passion:  1. What sparked your passion for aquariums, & marine biology? Quite honestly, I want to say that my passion was sparked when I started last year (2024) when I joined the aquarium. I wanted to take the aquarium as one of my elective classes, & I realized how much I enjoyed the opportunity to learn, especially about marine biology.  2. Do you have a specific person, place, or thing that helped to spark your passion?   My friend, Joanne Cacho, who was a senior in my first year, truly helped spark my passion. I owe quite a lot to her. Seeing her working in the aquarium, & helping people, encouraged me to be a much better leader. She helped me develop this passion that I have, for both the aquarium & marine biology. 3. Do you have a favorite marine or terrestrial animal, & if so, what is it? What is your favorite creature kept at the aquarium?  My favorite marine animal is actually Penguins! I know that many people don't consider them marine animals, however, I do, as they spend a lot of time in the ocean hunting for food. I don't have a favourite, I find all of them to be so cute! I particularly adore African Penguins, Emperor Penguins, & Adélie Penguins.  A huddle of Adelie Penguins on Sea Ice in Antarctica, with one bravely leaping from one peace of sea ice to the next. Credit to photographer Nick Dale. My favourite creature at the aquarium has got to be the California Sheephead, as they are very sociable & they always come close to us during feedings.  A California Sheephead roaming the cold Kelp Forests. Credit to Douglas Klug. Questions About Her Position At The Aquarium, & Cabrillo High School Aquarium:  4. How did you begin at the aquarium, & how long have you been in your role? I started last year (2024), in my junior year; this is my second year here. I always wanted to try out the aquarium class, I always wanted to try it as an elective. Originally, I had planned to take Advanced Florals that semester, a class dedicated to flower arranging. The teacher for that class, unfortunately, left that semester, & so I went for the aquarium instead. That was a great decision of mine.  5. What exactly is your role at the aquarium as Head Student Curator at the aquarium, & what do you do in your capacity as Head Student Curator? What time commitment does the role require?  As the head student curator, we are expected to lead & go above & beyond time-wise. We are expected to show new volunteers how to handle various tasks such as feeding, water quality monitoring, & developing curriculum, as our staff advisors are often busy. We are supposed to oversee day-to-day operations, & guide students who have questions or are struggling with any tasks. We basically make sure that the aquarium doesn't crumble. We act as the liaison between the students & the staff, as the staff are often very busy.  Additionally, although I am the head curator, we have other curators which manage smaller, more specialized responsibilities. We have a curator dedicated to sharks, octopi, nutrition, water quality, developing curriculum, & so on & so forth. About time, head curators are expected to be at every open house barring problems, do holiday feedings on days when school is not in session, & do tours with elementary school children during lunch. Being a head curator takes up much of my time outside of school.  Every year, we create different laboratory activities, & host tours for younger students in elementary & middle school. Our curriculum topic this year concerns the Channel Islands of California, so our activities are centered around Kelp Forests, & energy pyramids.  6. Apart from being Head Student Curator, you also play a very prominent role in managing the gift shop & social media pages. Do you mind elaborating on what exactly you do in your managerial capacity? Have you headed any new initiatives for either recently? Starting with the gift shop, my primary job is to make sure that we have people staffing it & signing up to do volunteer hours. I also ensure that all of our inventory is out & stocked properly, as well as our prices are correct. I handle deposits, & all of the money fundraiser from our gift shop goes to a scholarship fund for distinguished students who prove their commitment to the aquarium. These scholarships are for seniors or those going into college, as a thank you for your time & commitment to the Aquarium. You have to apply for it as you would with any ordinary scholarship, & the money is used to cut into your student loans or college payments. The amount differs from student to student depending on how many hours you have committed to the aquarium.  7. The Cabrillo High School Aquarium has recently begun hosting a short-day Summer Camp to show students about the processes of the aquarium, which is such a wonderful program. Do you mind explaining to the audience what the program consists of, your role in it, & your goal with it?  Our summer camp is a five day day-camp which people can drop their children off to to learn more about the ocean. We provide them with laboratory activities, & our topic for this year is energy! It's all about the energy pyramid. We also showcase our feeding procedures to the children, as we still must feed our animals during the camp.  As for my role in it, I wish that I was more dedicated to the program or the summer camp this year, however with my schedule, I am completely booked. I haven't had a chance to assist in developing activities, however I will be helping administrate the camp & take care of the children on the day of.  As for our goal, we just want to make a program that reaches as many students as possible because this summer camp really does inspire kids to get involved in our aquarium. This allows for future marine biologists to get more inspired, & that is truly what the goal of our aquarium is. To create passion in the young.  8. Can you describe the process of what it took to come from a simple volunteer to head student curator?  It took countless hours of working, & I wish to say that I am very lucky to be the head curator. Usually our head curators are regular curators managing a specialized role beforehand, however I went from a regular aquarium student to being the Head Curator, which is a huge step.  I had to apply for the position & be interviewed for it, & since I was very involved with the social media pages, & the gift shop my junior year, they saw my commitment & ultimately chose me as Head Curator.  9. What has been your proudest moment at the aquarium so far?  I think that my proudest moment was receiving a 90,000$ grant for our newest Tropical Fish gallery. For a bit of context, the Monterey Bay Aquarium generously donated 6 tanks from their closed Tentacles exhibit to us, which we are now using to house a plethora of tropical species.  We had to go to the Santa Barbara County Board of Supervisors, & two of our head curators presented the grant, & we won! It was such a moment of inspiration & awe, we're so grateful to the community for supporting us & backing us up. The council was in pure awe of what we do, & they've always supported us & what we do for our community. They were more than happy to give us the grant, & I'm so proud that we have such a reputation now.  10. I’m sure that you have faced just as many challenges & setbacks as you have leaps forward. What has been the biggest hurdle that you have faced in managing the aquarium, the gift shop, & the accompanying social media pages?  For me at least, it is the pure volume of work required to upkeep my role with the aquarium. It's a very large workload & sometimes I become stressed out, however I have a fantastic team & if I have a problem we make sure that we can fix it & we come together. That is likely the biggest channel that I face.  11. What do you intend to pursue after the Aquarium career-wise? If you do not know or do not wish to answer, that is perfectly reasonable & understandable. I do know what I want to pursue! My goal is to pursue graphic design, as I love the arts. I'd like to combine science & art to help create science communication posters or material to help companies & the public.  12. Do you have any advice that you would give to new aquarists, new students looking to join your program, or passionate young aspiring scientists in general?  Never stop loving what you do. Continue to be passionate because we are the future, & I know that we can overcome any challenges that come in our way.  13. Do you have any final words regarding the aquarium, your role, or marine biology? I'm grateful to speak so openly about the aquarium, & our last open house will be on May 14th, 2024 from 6:00 PM to 8:00 PM PST, at the Cabrillo High School Aquarium. I highly recommend going, or going to one of our open houses if you are ever in the area. It is such a magical place. The interior of the Cabrillo High School Aquarium. Credit to Cabrillo High School Aquarium. Directories / Credits  https://www.cabrillohighschoolaquarium.org Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors  SharkedSkooler  Marine Enthusiasts Podcast  Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow  Our Loyal Patrons  P. R. Ochoa

This months article series will discuss the Bay Of Fundy, Canada! The Bay of Fundy is is a body of water separating New Brunswick from Nova Scotia, & rests along the Atlantic Ocean. The Bay is best known for having the highest tidal range in the world, meaning the largest difference between the low & high tide. The tide in the bay of fundy is enormous, being at least 52 feet high, possibly higher. The bay is theorized to be corrupted from the French word “fendu”, meaning split. The Bay of Fundy began forming 250 million years ago, & fully formed approximately 190 million years ago. It is currently filled with treacherous rapids, & beautiful rocky landscapes. The bay has an area of roughly 6,178 square miles (16000.95 square kilometers). The bay can get 787.402 feet (240 meters) deep, & is teeming with marine life. The Bay Of Fundy has many, many different ecosystems ranging from cold-water estuaries, to crashing rocky shorelines. Along with these, the bay is littered with sea caves that flood when the tide rises. In these caves, thousands of fossils from 300 million years ago lie. It is for this reason, that the Bay of Fundy is not only a UNESCO Global Geopark, but a UNESCO World Heritage Site. A stunning photograph of the coastline of the Bay of Fundy during lowtide. Credit to World Atlas. In addition to the high tides of the bay, the bay houses the second-largest whirlpool in the Northern Hemisphere. The Old Sow whirlpool is located near deer island in the southwestern area of the Bay of Fundy. It is caused by the waters of the Passamoquoddy Bay & the Bay Of Fundy meeting, combined with the oceanic floor. These 2 currents together form a large whirlpool that is 20 feet deep. Unfortunately, as of 2025, the Bay of Fundy is not a designated marine protected area by the Canadian Government, Even though the bay is a migrational zone for a few critically endangered whale species. In this article, we will discuss the tides, temperatures, salinity, marine geography, & basic information of The Bay of Fundy, The most prominent Marine Ecosystems in the Bay Of Fundy, The Documented Marine Flora & Fauna in the Bay of Fundy, & finally how Ocean Acidification & rising oceanic tempuratures are affecting the Bay Of Fundy, with that being said, let us delve into the split bay.  The Salinity, Temperatures, Tides, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Bay Of Fundy The salinity in the Bay of Fundy fluctuates depending on which area of the bay you are measuring. The salinity ranges from 20 parts per thousand to 32.5 parts per thousand in the southern areas. Salinity is measured in 1,000-gram water samples. For every 1,000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is the way that salinity is currently measured. The oceanic temperature charts can be found on a plethora of websites, including but not limited to: https://seatemperature.info , https://seatemperatures.net ,  https://www.watertemperature.org , https://www.watertemp.org , & https://www.tideschart.com . The average yearly oceanic temperature in the Bay of Fundy is 48.26449999999992713 Fahrenheit (9.0358333333333 Celsius). Considering this average temperature, an 8 millimeters thick semi-drysuit or a fully drysuit is recommended for swimming or oceanic sports. The tidal charts can be found on similar websites, a few of which are: https://www.tidetime.org , https://www.tideschart.com , https://www.tide-forecast.com , & https://tidechecker.com .  The Bay of Fundy is famed for being the place on earth where the tide is highest. Occasionally, the tide will get 52 feet (16.1544 meters) or higher. Rip currents are not common, & usually aren’t life-threatening, but there are whirlpools. The bay is safe for swimming, though it is often very cold & there are dangerous whirlpools. The coast is very interesting to explore, & is coveted amongst wildlife enthusiasts. Scuba diving is still popular, as the rocky ocean floor houses a unique array of marine fauna. Certain divers even rank the Bay of Fundy as high as the prized Great Barrier Reef. The most popular place to dive is off the coast of Deer Island, which is a small island accessible by ferry. Kayaking is popular as well, though it is much more dangerous due to high waves & whirlpools. Kayaking should be done with a high amount of caution, but it is still an enjoyable experience. The Bay of Fundy is relatively unpolluted & is safe for swimmers, but in certain areas there is mild chemical contamination. The bay gets as deep as 731.6 feet in certain areas, & is shallower on average the further upstream you go. Some of the highest esteemed beaches along the Bay Of Fundy are Long Beach, Browns Beach, Mac’s Beach, St. Martins Beach, Melvins Beach, Cape Chigneto, Beach Meadows Beach Park, Conrad’s Beach, Blue Beach, & Blue Sea Beach. Unfortunately, despite the bay holding nationally acclaimed treasures, the bay has yet to become a marine protected area.  The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems In The Bay Of Fundy Ecosystem Type No. 1: Underwater Caves Underwater Caves are extremely common along The Bay Of Fundy, due to the massive rock structures in the late. Some caves are partially submerged, so that one can kayak through them. If a kayaker decides to do this, they should keep track of time, as when the tide rises, leaving will be nearly impossible. These tides often have fish, & occasionally nesting eels. Certain species of nesting eels like to nest in caves to protect their elvers. These caves will typically have shellfish, & anemones attached to the walls as well. Overall, they are an extremely interesting ecosystem to see, & are a fascinating place to explore.  A photograph of Saint Martins Sea Caves, along the Bay of Fundy, during low tide. Credit to user untrustworthyfart. Ecosystem Type No. 2: Rocky Reefs Rocky reefs are similar to coral reefs, in that they are essentially a hub for oceanic life. They usually have interesting rock formations, that work similarly to holes in coral, in that they both provide protection from predators. These rocky reefs are usually less biodiverse though, & are usually in deeper areas of the ocean. These reefs are usually more intricate as well, as they usually have fish living inside of them, & tunnel systems. These types of ecosystems are usually found the furthest offshore.  Ecosystem Type No. 3: Saltwater Estuarine Marshlands One of the most prominent ecological features of The Bay Of Fundy are the Saltwater Estuaries. Now, some may consider the entirety of the bay an estuary, but there are only certain areas that are designated as such. A large feature of these estuaries is the marshlands. These saltwater estuaries often are the areas with the most amount of seagrass, & are extremely important to waterfowl, fish spawning, & fish in general.   The most common seagrass species to make up this type of ecosystem is Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass / Seawrack). The Documented Marine Flora In The Bay Of Fundy The most common marine flora species in the Bay of Fundy is believed to be Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass / Seawrack). It is characterized by its bright green colour, & thin blades. They generally have 1 long stem that averages at 1 meter (3.28084 feet) long. The stem is often between 0.5 (0.19685 inches) & 1 centimeter (0.393701 inches) thick. This one is the one most often found on the coast as it grows along muddy & sandy shorelines. This seagrass is also most commonly found in marshes, which is most likely why it is such a popular food among wading birds. It also shields rocks from the currents, thus preventing the currents from affecting coastal buildings & shorelines, & supports fish nurseries. The Documented Fauna In The Bay Of Fundy Unfortunately, there is no compilation of the marine fauna found in the bay, which makes it hard to determine the biodiversity of the bay. The bay is known to be a summer migrational zone for the critically endangered Northern Atlantic Right Whale, which has an estimated population of 350. Apart from the Northern Atlantic Right Whale, the bay’s most prominent marine creatures include Balaenoptera Acutorostrata (Common Minke Whales), Balaenoptera Physalus (Fin Whale), Phocena Phocena (Harbour Porpoise), Urticina Felina (Dahlia Anemones), Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whales), Phoca Vitulina Concolor (Harbour Seals), Halichoerus Grypus (Gray Seals), Pollachius Pollachius (Atlantic Pollack), Scomber Scomberus (Atlantic Mackerel), & finally, Melanogrammus Aeglefinus (Haddock). How Ocean Acidification & Rising Oceanic Temperatures Are Affecting The Bay Of Fundy Ocean acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, & deforestation, for the past 150 years.  When carbon dioxide contacts seawater, it forms carbonic acid.  Carbonic acid gives off positively charged hydrogen ions, which causes increased oceanic positive ion concentrations & decreased oceanic pH. When the ocean has decreased pH, it effectively acidifies. When this occurs, it causes conditions that will eat at the shells of bivalves, & cause fish spawn to become less energetic. This depletes & eventually cripple populations of various species. Thankfully, oceanic acidification, & rising oceanic temperatures have yet to affect the Bay Of Fundy. However, rising oceans have. The rising oceans have increased the flood factor along the coastline of the Bay of Fundy. In addition, the coastline is creeping up along the shore, which will eventually flood coastal properties. If this is not watched closely by oceanic scientists, & climate scientists alike, destruction is inevitable. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Important Marine & Estuarine Habitat Of Inner Bay Of Fundy”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the Center for Science Advice, Fisheries & Oceans Of Canada. Retrieval Date: November 2nd, 2023.  https://waves-vagues.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/library-bibliotheque/349869.pdf Citation No. 2: “Wetsuit thickness and temperature guide, Written by Mark Evans, & Published on April 24th, 2023, at 3:05 PM. Published By Scuba Divers Magazine. Retrieval Date: November 2nd,  2023. https://www.scubadivermag.com/wetsuit-thickness-and-temperature-guide/#Scuba_diving_wetsuits Citation No. 3: “Fundy’s Watery Wastes?: Pollution in the Bay Of Fundy”, Written By Unknown & Published in Autumn of 1996. Published by the Bay Of Fundy Ecosystem Project. Retrieval Date: November 2nd, 2023.  http://www.bofep.org/pollution/ Citation No. 4: “Top Five Bay Of Fundy Beaches”, Written By Beth Winkle, & Published on April 5th, of 2023. Published by the Beach Street Inn. Retrieval Date: November 2nd, 2023.  https://www.beachstreetinn.ca/post/top5beachesrevealed Citation No. 5: “Beach Access Parks Bay Of Fundy & Annapolis Valley”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Nova Scotia Parks. Retrieval Date: November 2nd, 2023.  https://parks.novascotia.ca/parks/fundy-annapolis/beach Citation No. 6: “Beaches In The Bay Of Fundy & Annapolis Valley Of Nova Scotia”, Written By the Editors of Trip Advisor, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By TripAdvisor. Retrieval Date: November 2nd, 2023.  https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attractions-g3331587-Activities-c61-t52-     Bay_of_Fundy_Annapolis_Valley_of_Nova_Scotia Citation No. 7: “From coast to coast to coast: ecology & management of seagrass ecosystems across Canada”, Written By Grace E.P Murphy, Jillian C. Dunic, Emily M. Adamczyck, Sarah J. Bittick, Isabelle M. Côté, John Cristiani, Emilie A. Geissinger, & Robert S. Gregory, & Published on February 11th of 2011. Published By Facets Journal. Retrieval Date: November 2nd, 2023.   https://www.facetsjournal.com/doi/10.1139/facets-2020-0020 Citation No. 8: “Whales” Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Bay Of Fundy. Retrieval Date: November 3rd, 2023.  https://www.bayoffundy.com/about/whales/ Citation No. 9: “Northern Atlantic Right Whale” Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Retrieval Date: November 3rd, 2023.  https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/north-atlantic-right-whale Citation No. 10: “Marine Life” Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Bay of Fundy. Retrieval Date: November 3rd, 2023.  https://www.bayoffundy.com/about/marine-life/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A Porbeagle Shark gracefully swimming through the ocean. Credit to Sharknews.com . This months article series will discuss the Bay Of Fundy, Canada! The Bay of Fundy is is a body of water separating New Brunswick from Nova Scotia, & rests along the Atlantic Ocean. The bay is best known for having the highest tidal range in the world, meaning the largest difference between the low & high tide. The tide in the bay of fundy is enormous, being at least 52 feet high, possibly higher. The bay is theorized to be corrupted from the French word “fendu”, meaning split. The Bay of Fundy began forming 250 million years ago, & fully formed approximately 190 million years ago. It is currently filled with treacherous rapids, & beautiful rocky landscapes. The bay has an area of roughly 6,178 square miles (16000.95 square kilometers). The bay can get 787.402 feet (240 meters) deep, & is teeming with marine life. The Bay Of Fundy has many, many different ecosystems ranging from cold-water estuaries, to crashing rocky shorelines. Along with these, the bay is littered with sea caves that flood when the tide rises. In these caves, thousands of fossils from 300 million years ago lie. It is for this reason, that the Bay of Fundy is not only a UNESCO Global Geopark, but a UNESCO World Heritage Site. A gorgeous photograph of the rocky landscapes at the Bay of Fundy. Credit to Alamy. One of the creatures found in this mysterious bay is the Porbeagle Shark. The Porbeagle Shark is a species of Mackerel Shark found in the Atlantic Ocean. They are closely related to the Salmon Shark, which takes on a similar ecological role in the Pacific Ocean. They can often be seen consuming Ray-Skinned Fish, & swimming peacefully around. They are extremely quick & agile, which can be startling to sleepy fishermen. They are one of the few species of shark that are on record to attack humans, though it is not clear if this was to be offensive or defensive. Individuals are distributed from the cold depths of 4,460 feet (1,359.408 meters), & to the rocky shoreline. In this article, we will be discussing the Discovery & Life of the Porbeagle Shark, the Mating Tactics, Procedures, Cycles, Strategies, & Techniques of the  Porbeagle Shark, the Distribution of the Porbeagle Shark, & the Scientific Detailings of the Porbeagle Shark. With that being said, let us delve into this strange species of chondrichthyan.  The Discovery & Life Of The Porbeagle Shark   The Porbeagle Shark was discovered in 1788 by Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre, a French Zoologist who discovered approximately 25 species. Individuals usually grow to be an absolute maximum of 11.97507 feet (3.65 meters) long & a maximum weight of 507.063 pounds (230 kilograms). Their life span has an upper limit of 45 years, though it is rare to see a Porbeagle live past 32 years. Their average life span is currently estimated at 30 years. These sharks are known to be incredibly playful, & can recognize people.  They can often be seen pushing small objects around the water, & chasing one another for fun, much like kittens & puppies. This species of shark has existed for at least 45 million years, & possibly more. This species is actively being observed & monitored by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature as its population is slowly decreasing due to fishing. Porbeagles are one of the few oceanic species that will actively go & interact with humans. They will often go & swim up to boats to investigate them, as they are rather curious creatures. There is evidence to say that they are aggressive to humans unprovoked, however, attacks have only occurred twice & both were non-fatal. Unfortunately, due to them approaching boats, they are known to be a bycatch of fishing nets. As of 2025, they are not known to be territorial, as they are almost constantly migrating. Porbeagles live either alone or in small groups, & are accompanied by their mother for the first few months of their lives. Porbeagle sharks swim by flexing their tails back & forth to propel themselves forward, & can swim at a maximum of 20 miles per hour. They remain buoyant by using their liver, which is filled with oils, which are less dense than seawater. This liver also allows them to be very agile, & maneuver through the water column much more easily. Instead of having a cycle of complete sleep & complete lucidity like humans, they have cycles of resting part of their brain, but remaining awake to watch for predators. Their primary predators are larger sharks such as Great whites, & of course, Killer Whales. These predators usually feast on juveniles, though, as full-grown porbeagles are simply too large. Their diet consists of lancetfish, herring, sardines, pilchards, sauries, mackerel, cod, haddock, squid, & generally different types of bony fish. Currently, they are thought to be diurnal hunters. They are not Cannibalistic in any way, shape, or form. Juvenile Porbeagles primarily eat soft-bodied animals, such as squid. As they age, they shift towards fish. It is unclear how much they consume per day or how much they swim per day. Their metabolism is very average compared to sharks of a similar size. Individuals locate food by feeling for ripples in the water, visually, & feeling the electric pulses created by other animals. Physically, they have large gill slits, rough skin, long conical snouts, & large eyes. They tend to be grey, with white underbellies, & white patches on their fins. As of 2025, they are categorized as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, with a decreasing population trend. The last assessment was made on November 6th, 2018. Their population size is unknown as of 2025.  The Mating Tactics, Procedures, Cycles, Strategies, & Techniques Of The Porbeagle Shark The Porbeagle Shark breeds via sexual reproduction. They are not hermaphroditic, & have 2 distinct sexes. Their breeding system is polygynous, meaning that the males have multiple partners, but the females don’t. Breeding occurs from early September to late November. They only breed once per year, due to having to migrate thousands of miles to their mating grounds. The majority of the porbeagles in the Atlantic mate off the coast of Maine or the coast of Newfoundland. Usually, the females will reach sexual maturity at the age of 13, & the males will reach sexual maturity at 8 years. Their gestational period is between 8 to 9 months. The males will signal to the females that they are ready to breed by biting on their pectoral fins. After the females & the males engage in sexual contact, the males will have no part in the pups' lives. Before fertilization, a single ovum is 6 to 7 millimeters. The females are ovoviviparous, which means that they will keep eggs in her until they hatch, when they will lay them. They nourish their young in the womb by using nutrient-rich egg yolks. Usually, they will have between 1 & 5 little pups per litter. These pups will usually be born between April & June. The pups are 0.6 meters (1.9685 feet), & 11.0231 pounds (5 kilograms). The mothers will take care of these babies, & defend them with their lives. A baby Porbeagle Shark being held by ocean biologist Dr. Alan Holyoak. Credit to Oceans 24/7.   The Distribution Of The Porbeagle Shark   The Porbeagle shark is found all over the Atlantic Ocean, specifically in the coldest areas. They tend to prefer cold water, which they can withstand because of their warm-blooded nature. They are also found in the Southern Indian Ocean, & Southern Pacific, & the Southern Ocean. These sharks will migrate thousands of miles to reach one of the two major mating grounds by September, to have the best chance of breeding. They are found at depths of up to 5935.039 feet deep (1,809 meters). Unfortunately, their population is slowly depleting in their northern range. In the Mediterranean, they are currently considered Critically Endangered. Thankfully, though, fishermen no longer purposely attempt to fish for them, which puts much less pressure on the population.  The Scientific Details of The Porbeagle Shark By far, the most spectacular thing about the Porbeagle Shark is their ability to sense electrical activity in the water surrounding them. Porbeagle sharks possess Ampullae of Lorenzini, which are a series of electrical receptors that allow them to detect electrical fields & changes. This system is used to detect the electrical pulses created by the muscle contractions of their prey. This system is also hypothesized to help detect minor changes in pressure & temperature in the surrounding water. North Atlantic Porbeagles have between 28 to 29 upper teeth, & 26 to 27 lower teeth, while Southern Hemisphere Porbeagles have 30 to 31 upper teeth, & 27 to 29 lower teeth. Porbeagle sharks do not have true bones, & are instead composed of cartilaginous skeletons. The reason for this is that true bones would weigh them down, & cartilaginous bones help them to remain buoyant. Though they may not have true bones, they are still able to fossilize. Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics. All species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either in adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Chondrichthyes. This is a class of fish that is primarily composed of cartilage. This class can be compared to the class Osteichthyes, which is a class of fish that is primarily composed of bone. A few universal characteristics for any fish in the class Chondrichthyes are that they are all jawed vertebrates, they have paired fins, paired nares, scales, & a heart with chambers in a series. Their order is that of Lamniformes. This is an order of sharks. A few universal characteristics for creatures classified within this order are that, they possess two dorsal fins, an anal fin, five gill slits, eyes without nictitating, & a mouth cavity that extends behind the eyes. Creatures from this order also usually maintain a higher body temperature than the water surrounding them. This order has the largest macropredatory shark to ever exist, the Otodus Megalodon. Their Family is Lamnidae, which is a family of mackerel sharks. All Species categorized under have two dorsal fins, an anal fin, five gill slits, & a mouth extending behind the eyes. Their genus is Lamna, which only contains 2 species. Their binomial name is Lamna Nasus.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Lamna Nasus: Blue Dog”, Written By John Edmunds & Richard Meredith, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Animal Diversity Web. Retrieval Date: October 25th, 2023.  https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Lamna_nasus/ Citation No. 2: “Porbeagle Shark: Lamna Nasus”, Written By Rebecca Bales, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by A-Z Animals. Retrieval Date: October 25th, 2023.  https://a-z-animals.com/animals/porbeagle-shark/ Citation No. 3: “Marine Life Encyclopedia Sharks & Rays: Porbeagle Shark”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Oceana. Retrieval Date: October 25th, 2023.  https://oceana.org/marine-life/porbeagle-shark/ Citation No. 4: “Porbeagle”, Written By Unknown & Last Updated November 6th of 2018. Published by the International Union for the Conservation Of Nature. Retrieval Date: October 25th, 2023.  https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/11200/500969 Citation No. 5: “The reproductive biology of the porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus) in the western North Atlantic Ocean”, Written by C.F. Jensen, Lisa J. Natanson, Harold Pratt, & N.E. Kohler, & Published in October 2002. Published by Research Gate. Retrieval Date: October 25th, 2023.  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279965261_The_reproductive_biology_of_the_porbeagle_shark_Lamna_nasus_in_the_western_North_Atlantic_Ocean Citation No. 6: “Shark Of The Month - Porbeagle Shark” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Dive Timor. Retrieval Date: October 25th, 2023.  https://divetimor.com/shark-of-the-month-porbeagle-shark/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

This article is part of our collection known as the Marine Hall of Distinction. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who have served marine biology and oceanography the most. We do this to commemorate these marine biologists and show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. Today's marine scientist is Dr. Howard L. Sanders.  Dr. Howard L. Sanders was a foremost expert on the benthos, the sea floor, in both shallow & deep-sea environments. Across his lengthy career, he worked with many different institutions, across a variety of different topics & oceans. Incorporating technology into his work, & building a partnership with the sea, he is respected for his work with oil spill ecology, benthic ecology in the deep sea, & evolutionary ecology. His Formative Years & Education  Howard L. Sanders was born on March 17th, 1921, in Newark, New Jersey, to father Issac Sandusky, & mother Marion Rosenfield Sandusky. His father opened a lumber business, & sadly passed away when Dr. Sanders was in his teens. He legally changed his name from “Sandusky” to “Sanders” during his teen years, for an unknown reason. He spent his high school years in Newark, officially graduating in the year 1940,  Unfortunately, young Dr. Sanders was struck with a condition affecting his thyroid, which is a gland in a person’s neck that assists in the production of hormones, resulting in a year of bedridden illness, & ultimately, a thyroidectomy. As with many young men, he was drafted to serve in World War II from 1942 to 1945. Serving his time in the Army Signal Corps, a branch dedicated to communications, he was deployed to mainland Europe, fighting honorably in the Battle of the Bulge. His experience in the war profoundly affected him, causing him to experience PTSD-like symptoms & grow a lifelong disdain for SPAM, as well as camping. It is said by his wife, Lillian Selchen Sanders, as well as his mother, that he experienced night terrors during the first years of their marriage, often waking up in a great panic.  Upon exiting the war, he promptly entered an undergraduate program at Rutgers University, before transferring over to the University of British Columbia in Vancouver for a degree in forestry. This didn’t last long, as he soon switched over to Zoology, a change that would set the course of the rest of his career in motion. He would work as a fisheries aide in Alaska & Florida during his degree, an experience which would become very useful later on. Graduating early in 1949 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts, he quickly progressed to a graduate degree with the University of Rhode Island’s new Oceanography program.  It was during his degree that he would meet his wife, Lillian, in the same bowling league as him. Lillian was a nurse, working in a public hospital post-undergraduate degree. They fell deeply in love with one another, marrying in a ceremony in Gulfport, Mississippi, in 1949.  Working alongside scientists at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute as a Casual Research Assistant, he learned became more entrenched in the field of Oceanography. He finished his Master’s degree in 1951, with his thesis titled “The Herring OofBlock Island Sound”. Upon graduating, he quickly moved on to his P.h.D at Yale University, studying under the illustrious G. Evelyn Hutchinson, widely considered to be the founder of modern ecological studies. Under his guidance, he would develop a project that eventually morphed into his P.h.D, studying Benthic communities in Long Island Sound. This set off an interest of his to study the individual species of, & learn more about the community structures of benthic ecosystems.  During his P.h.D research with Hutchinson, he pulled a most peculiar creature out of the sediment while sorting through sediment samples. This creature was small enough to be missed at only a few millimeters long, however, it caught his eye for various reasons. This animal, which he later realized was a kind of shrimp, was blind, segmented, & rather primitive in form.  Hutchinson advised him to temporarily pause his dissertation study to learn more about this creature, which was later discovered to be a part of a wholly new taxonomic class. Sanders chose to do so, creating a new crustacean class named Cephalocarida, a new family named Hutchinsonellidae, & a new genus named Hutchinsoniella.  A black & white photograph of a crustacean within the class Cephalocarida. Finally, at the age of 34, Dr. Howard Sanders graduated with his P.h.D, shortly before his first son, Robert, was born. Not only this, but his discovery made national news, landing him a position with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute.  His Career & Personal Life  Dr. Howard Sanders joined the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute as a Research Associate in 1955, working with Bostwick Ketchum to expand research into Intertidal Benthic Communities.  At first, upon moving to Woods Hole, Massachusetts, the family of 3 rented a home 2 miles away from the institute. However, a new addition to the family, his second son Mark, caused them to officially purchase their first house in 1958 in Falmouth, Massachusetts, a house that would become their children’s childhood home. His wife, Lillian, began taking on a role in community affairs around this time, & began working with the Visiting Nurse Association, as well as the store of the artist & First Lady of Falmouth, Mary Mavor. She joined the store in 1972, & moved up to managing the store in 1980.  Now, during his early years at the institute, Director Bostwick Ketchum wanted to change the course of the aquarium to focus more on offshore ecology, sparking tension among the researchers. Many were not willing to pivot from Intertidal & Coastal research to Deep Sea or Open Ocean research, with many going so far as to quit. Dr. Sanders, being a rather tranquil & docile person, did not leave his position. At first, he was not enthusiastic about shifting to focus on Deep-Sea Ecology, however, he was interested in testing some of his methods for sampling organisms in the intertidal in a new environment such as the deep sea. This open-mindedness would serve him well, with him realizing that he could utilize techniques that he had perfected during his research on the seafloor of Long Island Sound, and in research on the seafloor of the deep sea.  An illustration of the modern Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. Credit to Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. He began to test out these techniques on a scientific expedition aboard the vessel Atlantis, & with the help of freshly minted scientist Robert Kessler, it worked. The device that he used resembled a dredge anchor, which was used to collect large samples from along the seafloor & bring them back aboard the boat for study. The technique would become standard practice for marine biologists & ecologists studying the benthic layer of the deep sea across the world until the 1990s when a new method took over. This method was far more advanced & effective than any method before it, showcasing that the deep sea was not a barren wasteland, but a thriving ecosystem with abundant biodiversity equal to coral reefs or tropical rainforests.  Working steadfastly & rising through the ranks, he was promoted to Associate Scientist in 1963, & Senior Scientist shortly thereafter in 1965.  In 1969, an oil barge struck a reef & beached in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, releasing 4,000 barrels of No. 2 oil into the ocean. This caused a massive ecological disaster, causing oil to become buried in the sediment for decades to come. Sanders, who at the time was working on Benthic Ecology, rallied a group of students & young scientists to take samples from the freshly affected Buzzards Bay. With the end goal of evaluating the effects of the oil spill on the local ocean fauna & flora, he collaborated with multiple agencies, including the Environmental Protection Agency, to release a technical report on the incident.  A 10-year-long study from 1969 to 1979 conducted by Sanders ended up shining a light on the devastating impacts that oil spills have on marine organisms, & paving the way for new standards regarding oil spill cleanup & restoration of communities affected by such accidents.  However, expectedly, this sparked the rage of large oil companies & their political proponents. All scientists involved were targeted by politicians & press alike, however, none of them faltered. An oil barge named “Florida”, sitting in Buzzards Bay, after releasing 4,000 barrels of oil into the Atlantic Ocean. Credit to the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. In 1975, Emperor Hirohito of Japan became interested in his work on crustaceans, as the Emperor would do work with marine arthropods & mollusks in a laboratory of his own. Emperor Hirohito decided to pay a visit to Dr. Sanders during a state trip to the U.S., & visited him at Redfield Laboratory in Massachusetts. The pair viewed Sanders’ collection of marine specimens, discussing their morphology, & evolution.  Dr. Howard Sanders warmly greeting Emperor Hirohito at Redfield Laboratory in 1975 on an official state visit. Beginning from Left to Right, Howard Sanders, Emperor Hirohito’s Personal Assistant, & Emperor Hirohito of Japan. Credit to Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. Lillian Sanders, Dr. Sanders's wife, would go on to buy From Far Corners in 1986, the same year that Dr. Sanders retired from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute with the rank of Senior Scientist Emeritus, going on to manage it for 6 years. During this time, she went on purchasing trips to all corners of the world to find things for the shop, from Peru to Beijing.  Sadly, while on a trip in 1990, she suffered a severe stroke, causing doctors to believe that she would never walk again. She worked through the pain, & exemplified resilience by going through physical therapy to walk with a walker, & eventually a cane again.  Unfortunately, during this time, Dr. Sanders began developing Alzheimer's Disease, which rapidly began progressing. Although his wife fought to keep him in his home for as long as possible, his speech suffered from ataxia, leading to his placement in an assisted living facility. It is said that the last memory he could recall was that of a memory he had in 1948, during his time working in Alaska as a Master’s degree student for the summer.  Lillian visited him routinely until his untimely death on February 8th, 2001. The contributions that Dr. Sanders made in this field are immense, & still just as relevant, valuable, & remarkable today. It was said that although his work often kept him away from his family until 8:00 in the evenings, he was still a very family-oriented person, & would often entertain spirited conversations about his latest discoveries, research, & missions, none of which were in vain. He was survived by his wife, Lillian Selchen Sanders, his 2 sisters, Leah Green & Betty Deutsch, his children, Robert & Mark Sanders, & his grandchildren, David & Sarah Sanders. A photograph of Dr. Howard Sanders, his wife Lillian Selchen Sanders, & their two sons Robert & Mark at their home in Massachusetts in the 1980s. Credit to the Sanders Family. His contributions to the field of oceanography, marine ecology, & marine biology permanently altered the field, leaving a lasting legacy of scientific research & discovery.  His Awards, Achievements, Accomplishments, & Honors  He was one of the world’s leading experts in Marine Benthic Ecology, which is the study of ecological habitats along the seafloor.  Throughout his life, he published approximately 68 papers on trail-blazing research in a variety of fields, particularly evolutionary ecology, marine benthic ecology, & oil spill ecology.  He served on the board of review for the Journal of Marine Research, Limnology, & Oceanography, a prestigious feat. He participated in 12 dives in the deep-sea submersible known as the ALVIN for various research purposes. He discovered an entirely new class of Crustaceans, named Cephalocarida, making national news & sparking a scientific debate about crustaceans in the process.  He pioneered a field-wide technique used to collect specimens from the seafloor. He was elected to survive on the board of the National Academy of Sciences in 1983.  Directories / Credits  Citation No. 1: “Howard Lawrence Sanders”, Written by Richard C. Brusca & Isabelle T. Williams, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Academy of Sciences.  https://www.rickbrusca.com/http___www.rickbrusca.com_index.html/Papers_files/Sanders%20Bio.pdf Citation No. 2: “Howard L. Sanders, 79: Studied Effects Of Oil Spills”, Written by Wolfgang Saxon, & Published on April 23rd, 2001. Published by the New York Times.  https://www.nytimes.com/2001/04/23/us/howard-l-sanders-79-studied-effects-of-oil-spills.html Citation No. 3: “Howard L. Sanders”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute.  https://www.whoi.edu/who-we-are/about-us/people/obituary/howard-l-sanders/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler  Marine Enthusiasts Podcast  STEMScribe  Cash Daniels  Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Today’s Ode to Oceanography series map is an ancient nautical chart of the Southeastern United States. This map is of the coast of the Southeastern United States from Cape Fear in North Carolina to Saint Augustine, in Northern Florida. It encompasses the states of Georgia, South Carolina, & partially covers Florida & North Carolina.  The map is in reasonable condition & has been re-backed, & restored using various techniques, although it does have a few slight dark markings in the upper right corner, as well as in the lower left region.  In today’s article, we will discuss the map itself, & analyze this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the Marshlands of the Southeastern United States!  A photograph of Cape Fear jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean, where the map starts. Credit to Wilmington Star News. A gorgeous photograph of the coastline of Saint Augustine, Florida, with a beautiful, vast blue ocean. This is the approximate location where the map ends. Credit to Ocean Grove RV Resort. The Map Itself A 193-year-old Nautical map of the southeastern United States. Credit to Maps of Antiquity. The map spans 4 different U.S states, those being North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, & Florida, along with one major river, the St. John’s River. Although the map is uncolored, it has slightly yellowed with age. Along with this, there are small markings in the center, upper right, & lower left sections of the map that have taken on a brownish appearance. The chart is also illustrated with the south being at the top & north being at the bottom, meaning that Florida is at the top while North Carolina is at the bottom.  The chart has approximately 1 compass, in the lower central region, along with zoomed in areas of the Charleston Harbour in South Carolina, & the Saint James River in Virginia.  An Analysis Of The Chart The chart was illustrated in 1832 by Edmund March Blunt, an American cartographer, hydrographer, & bookseller, best known for his guide “The American Pilot”, which detailed every American port at the time of its publication in 1796. He is widely considered to be one of the most influential hydrographers of the 19th century in the United States. It was found by Maps of Antiquity, who restored it, cleaned it, framed it, & fixed its backing. This map was made in the United States, by Blunt’s cartographic office was based in Newburyport, Massachusetts. Newburyport is modernly in Essex County, approximately 35 miles northeast of Boston.  The chart is fairly accurate for its time, although the harbour of Charleston, South Carolina, is different in modern day. It is unlikely to be part of any particular collection. The chart was made for civilian use, & was not intended to be used in strategic combat, or by the United States Military.  As the map was produced in 1832, it was likely made using Lithography. Lithography is a method of printing that arose in the 1820s, & remained the most popular method of printing in both color & grayscale until the early 1930s, when more efficient methods became available.  In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterward, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels  Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons  P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of the bustling, vibrant downtown area of St. John's, the capital of Antigua. Credit to photographer Sean Pavone. This article will discuss the documented history of Antigua. Antigua is an island in the Caribbean that makes up the country of Antigua & Barbuda. The island is approximately 185.22 Nautical/Marine miles (213.147369 miles or 343.02744 kilometers) from Venezuela. It is also approximately 1311.36 Nautical/Marine miles (1509.086137 miles or 2428.63872 kilometers) from mainland Florida. Antigua is a part of the Lesser Antilles & the island group known as the Leeward Islands. The etymology of the name is that Antigua means ancient in Spanish. This choice of name was most likely a remnant of the Spanish conquest of the Caribbean. This name was given to them by the Spanish when they first landed on Antigua. Antigua has a total of 6 major divisions on the island. These are known as Saint John, Saint George, Saint Peter, Saint Phillip, Saint Paul, & Saint Mary. There are a total of 84 cities in Antigua, excluding unincorporated compounds. Their post-Columbian history was rather defined by the British, as they had control of Antigua for centuries. In this article, we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Antigua as a whole, the known aboriginals of Antigua, the disaster history of Antigua, & finally a segment on the Antiguan & Barbudan economy. The Documented History Of Antigua Before Colonization Numerous different indigenous peoples occupied Antigua at different times, including the Arawak, Carib, Saladoid & Ciboney Peoples. The Saladoid migrated from northern Venezuela throughout the greater & lesser Antilles. The Saladoid people farmed & made lots of ceramic pottery. There are many archaeological sites on the island where ceramic pottery can be found. These works of art were mostly made from the Saladoid. The Arawakan language spread up the island chain, which made that one of Antigua’s prime languages. The Arawaks also arrived on the island in about 400 A.D. The Arawaks introduced many plants to the island, which is one of the reasons for the present biodiversity of Antigua. The Arawaks had canoes, which is how they got to the island in the first place. They most likely came from Guadeloupe or Saint Lucia. These canoes resembled the build of what we modernly know as dug-out canoes. Most of the Arawaks, however, left in 1100 A.D. The remaining Arawaks were targeted by the Caribs & faced many raids. Modernly, People of Carib & Arawak Descent are still found on the island. On Antigua & Barbuda at the time, there were 2 unique tribes of indigenous peoples. These tribes had split off from the Arawaks & had formed their own 2 tribes. Their religious beliefs differ severely from the main Arawakan religions. These people were known as the Galashopa & the Galapopa. The Galashopa were rather warlike & did not believe in peacefulness. The word Galashopa roughly translates to “War”. The Galapopa were peaceful & did not fully mind the other tribes. The word Galapopa roughly translates into “Peace”. These tribes coexisted peacefully for many years. However, one day the Galashopa decided to attack the Galapopa & enslave them all. The Galashopa were also going to seize all settlements built by the Galapopa. On the 8th of December 1342, the Galashopa attacked the Galapopa in an ambush. However, this attack had been anticipated & the Galapopa tribe had previously prepared. In the end, the Galapopa won the war due to their men being well-trained & due to them having proper equipment. The queen of Galapopa, known as Marianna, assumed charge of the Galashopa territories after the war. She most likely called the islands both Antigua as Antigua meant God in her Arawakan language, but Barbuda meant devil. Due to bad weather throughout the Caribbean, sacrificial events took place in which they sacrificed things to their god. It is not exactly clear what they would sacrifice. Soon, the locals realized that they had to honour both their god & their devil. So they changed the island's name back to Barbuda. As a result of this name change, the poverty rate decreased & their crops prospered for many years. After this, things went well for the Galapopa until the next queen assumed power of the Isles. However, what transpired next cannot be blamed as a fault of the queen. This queen's name was Mishlaelae, it was during her rule that Christopher Columbus arrived on Antigua. Christopher Columbus arrived in 1493, & named the island Santa Maria de la Antigua. He was less than friendly to the locals. He wanted to mine gold on the island & also planned to enslave all of the locals. To save her people from enslavement, the queen had an affair with him. It was at this point that many of the Arawaks left. After Colonization Historical Events From The 15th Century Antigua was visited by Christopher Columbus in the year of 1493. He found the island on his 2nd Caribbean voyage. He then named it Antigua. His reason for doing so was that he was naming it after a church known as the Church of Santa Maria de la Antigua, which is in Seville, Spain. He, however, did not colonize the island or bring any awareness to it. He then did not do much with the island personally. This led to the island not being used by Europeans until the 17th Century. Historical Events From The 16th Century Many of the Caribs left in the century due to the scarcity of freshwater. By this point, they were one of the only tribes left. What was left by the Galapopa was conquered by the Caribs, but ultimately left behind. At this point, most, if not all, of the remaining Arawaks left the island as well. Historical Events From The 17th Century The English finally managed to colonize the island in 1632. Their reasoning for doing so is that they wanted to expand their sugarcane industry. Tomas Warner, the captain of the guards, was the first British governor of Antigua & Barbuda. Settlers grew many crops such as tobacco, indigo, ginger, & sugarcane. Antigua officially became a British colony in 1667. The first large sugar plantation/estate was founded & owned by Christopher Codrington. It was established in 1674. Codrington also leased Barbuda to raise supplies for his plantations . Unfortunately, work conditions were not documented. However, it can be assumed that he did not treat his workers properly, as expansion was often prioritized over livelihoods. The sugar generated from his plantations made the sugar industry so profitable that many farmers switched to farming sugar. It is important to note that a majority of these workers from this point on would be African slaves. This ended up causing great wealth for Antigua. As of now, Barbuda’s only city is named after him. The British government ended up granting the rights to the island over to the Codrington family in the year of 1685. They were also awarded the rights to Barbuda, which they ruled until 1860. Historical Events From The 18th Century By the early 1700’s Antigua was the only Caribbean colony with a harbour that could hold larger ships. This made it an important nautical resource for Britain. Antigua became used as a dockyard for British naval ships from the years of 1725 to 1858. It then became an important deep-water port as it was sheltered & had deep water. It became an incredibly well-known English dockyard after this point. Horatio Nelson arrived in 1784 as the head of the squadron that was meant for the Leeward Islands. His duty was to enforce draconian commercial shipping laws. He also developed multiple naval bases along the harbour to enforce these laws. This worked out to be rather successful. This also resulted in Nelson's dockyard being constructed, which to date is one of the best dockyards & most valuable nautical assets on Antigua. He also influenced other major port expansions. However, he was not very respected or liked by the settlers who were already there. Historical Events From The 19th Century In 1807, the Codrington family created a large estate that was used for slavery. This estate was used to assemble a workforce of children using enslaved women. This workforce of children would serve Barbuda & would export many resources to Antigua. During 1833, A very small percentage of the population, who were aristocratic plantation owners, ruled the island politically & financially. Beneath them, class-wise, were the people known as Afro-Caribbean. These people were the modern-day equivalent of the working class. In between these 2 classes were the middlemen who were the Free People of Colour & the Portuguese & Syrian Immigrants. The majority of Syrian & Portuguese immigrants came for work of various kinds, they also came for an extremely stable economy. In 1834, Britain abolished all slavery in the majority of their colonies. As a result, Antigua immediately instituted full emancipation rather than having a 4-5 year waiting period. This somehow managed to improve the economic circumstances of Antigua & Barbuda. Unfortunately, many now-free Slaves were discriminated against harshly. They often were not given enough fertile land & were not given credit at all. In the year 1843, there was a major earthquake in Antigua that caused economic issues & infrastructural damage. In 1847, there was a major hurricane that caused economic issues as well as destruction to various towns across Antigua & Barbuda. Between the years of 1847 & 1852, over 2,500 Portuguese immigrants came to the island. They mostly came from the island of Madeira, which was experiencing extreme famine at the time. They quickly made small businesses & became large contributors to the economy. At this point, they would have been the middle class of Antigua. They also became a large part of the agricultural workforce. You see, due to the abolition of slavery, many plantation owners were scrambling for workers. This brought up an interest in European labor, specifically the Portuguese. This ended up in many jobs being opened to the Portuguese & the Portuguese ended up filling jobs that were once done by slaves. Historical Events From The 20th Century The main cash product changed frequently throughout the 20th century. The main cash products from the years of 1953 & 1956 were cotton, sugar, meat, cereals, local vegetables, & local fruit. Over time, the importance of crops & other types of produce went into decline as other nations were able to sell goods at a price no longer feasible to sustain in the Antiguan economy. Another factor that led to this was Central American countries beginning to export things at extremely low prices. In more recent times, however, Antigua has developed a primarily service-based economy relying on tourism as its leading source of income. Much like other islands & nations that rely on tourism, this can become problematic as their economic stability depends on the willingness of others to travel & explore the area. In the year of 1956, the Leeward Islands colony was de-federated, and Antigua was a member of this federation. On January 3rd of 1958, the West Indies Federation was established & Antigua & Barbuda joined it that same year. However, this was short-lived as it dissolved on the 31st of May 1962. Antigua longed for freedom as the Antiguan & Barbudan governments persevered to join a federation. Provisions were made in what is known as the West Indies Act of 1967 for Antigua to assume a status of association with the United Kingdom on the 27th of February 1967. As an associated state, Antigua became fully self-governing in all internal affairs, while the United Kingdom retained responsibility for external affairs & defense / military issues. In the year of 1981 on November 1st, Antigua & Barbuda became a sovereign entity & formally broke away from the United Kingdom. It remains in the Commonwealth, however, it has been its own country since 1981. In 1997, Prime Minister of Antigua & Barbuda Lester Bird announced that a group of ecologically sensitive islands just off Antigua's northeastern coast, which at the time were previously proposed for national park status, were being turned over to Malaysian developers for commercial purposes. The Guiana Island Development Project deal, calling for a 1000-room hotel, an 18-hole golf course as well as a rather luxurious casino, sparked widespread criticism by environmentalists, minority members in parliament & the press. The issue came to a head when a resident shot the Prime Minister's brother in retaliation. Today, the proposed development is mired in lawsuits & politics. The Antigua & Barbuda Labour Party, or the ABLP, won renewed mandates in the general elections in 1984 & 1989. In the 1989 elections, the ruling Antiguan & Barbudan Labour Party won all but two of the 17 seats. During elections in March 1994, the prime ministerial power was passed from Vere Bird to his son, who is known as Lester Bird. However, Vere Bird decided to remain within the Antiguans & Barbudans Labour Party, which won 11 of the 17 parliamentary seats. The Aboriginals Of Antigua The Saladoid Indigenous Peoples The Saladoid people lived throughout northern Venezuela & the Caribbean. They inhabited many areas of the Orinoco River. They were one of the oldest of these groups. They often made pottery & ceramics, which provide some of the oldest artifacts of the Caribbean. They had 4 distinct pottery styles. These pottery styles were created by other cultures, however, only 3 have been connected to existing cultures. These cultures were known as Hacienda Grande, Cuevas, & Coral-Bay Longford. They spoke an Arawakan language. They seemed not to interact with many other tribes, so their attitude to them is unknown. They often made exotic jewelry with carnelian, turquoise, Lapis Lazuli, amethyst, crystal-quartz, & different types of wood. They prioritized agriculture in their lives. They had different types of farms near rivers & creeks. After approximately 250 B.C, they diminished greatly, & after that point, they slowly disappeared. The reason for this is, unfortunately, unknown. The Carib / Kalingo Indigenous Peoples The Caribs of Antigua were an indigenous Amerindian of the Caribbean Lesser Antilles. They are also known as the Kalingo or Kalina. They also lived in South America. They spoke a language that is modernly known as Island Carib, which is classified as a highly endangered language. They were one of the least peaceful tribes of the Caribbean. Many populations had many warlike tactics & were believed to have mandatory combat training. They were taller, bulkier, & stronger than the Arawaks due to the emphasis on being a warrior & being able to defend their home. They utilized their marine resources often & had a strong fishing industry. Fish was one of the most common foods, they were also believed to have bred some fish. They had large boats which were most similar to a modern-day Canoe, these boats could hold up to 12 persons. However, their largest warships could hold up to 100 persons. These boats looked similar to a modern-day dugout canoe. However, they could also use & build sails. They used these to raid the Arawaks as well as to fish. They also utilized the ocean in other ways. They fought with the other tribes of the Lesser Antilles, such as the Arawaks, who were relatively peaceful. They hunted mammals as well. They revered the bones of their elders or family members & they burnt off fat from their enemies or prisoners of war during battle rituals. They were labelled as cannibals & savages by the Spanish & British on their conquests, which was wrongfully used to justify conquering their lands & enslaving them. The modern-day word cannibal is said to have been influenced by the word Carib due to their alleged cannibalistic practices. They invented certain types of primitive barbecues as well, which they were alleged to use for barbecuing the flesh of their enemies, as well as fish. However, if they were cannibalistic, they did not consume the entire body. Allegedly, their reasoning for this was that if they consumed a little bit of their enemy after they were dead, they would assume the characteristics of that person. Also, there is evidence to believe that early Caribs were not cannibals. They were said to be on average approximately 5 feet 5 inches. They had a brown hue to their skin similar to that of a modern-day Latin American person. They did not appear to wear clothing of any kind. The women would paint their skin with a red dye known as Roucou, which is made from the extract of the seeds of the Achiote tree. The women also circled their eyes with black pigment. The males would also paint their bodies and, on occasion, wear feathered headdresses, jewelry & piercings of all kinds through their lips, and large hoop jewelry through their noses. Nose piercings were fairly common among both genders. The males also wore the Caracoli, which was a necklace of small bones along with the teeth of defeated enemies, from which a crescent-shaped bone carved ornament was suspended. The Caracoli necklace was worn to represent the courage of the wearer. It was typically worn by men & there isn’t much evidence that it was worn by women. The women also commonly lived in different houses from the men. Arts were common among the Caribs. Basket weaving was a common type of art that was done both for function & for art. Pottery was quite common among the Caribs as well. They had many different structural styles of pottery. It is also important to note that while most men spoke Island Carib languages, a significant population of women originated from Arawak groups, meaning that they would speak Arawak in the homes. They often used bows & arrows when hunting or fighting. This weaponry, unfortunately, was not very helpful during the initial British Invasion. However, their boats were. They were infamous for using one of their warships to catch European boats. This is one of the main reasons why Saint Lucia wasn’t colonized for such a long time. They did not have a social or societal construct & did not have any form of government. Little is known about their religion; however, it is believed that they practiced polytheism. The Arawak Indigenous Peoples The Arawak Indigenous peoples existed throughout the Lesser Antilles & heavily throughout northern South America. They were also known as the Taino people. They spoke many different dialects of Arawakan languages. They were comparatively peaceful & often avoided engaging in combat, except in cases where they were acting in defense. As far as we are aware, they did not fight with other Arawak populations often. They often practiced farming of corn, beans, pepper, sweet potatoes, ground nuts, & cassava. They also practiced fishing with nets & spear fishing. They used weaving techniques to build the nets. They also bred their fish in individual ponds. They hunt any animals that are available using spears, bows, & blow guns. They, however, did not use the pelts to make clothes. Most of the time, Arawaks stood naked, with men occasionally wearing loincloths. The women wore short skirts & beaded shell necklaces. They also did not make shoes of any kind. On occasions, they would paint their bodies various colours such as black, white, or red. They were described as being of medium height by Columbus, which most likely means approximately 5 feet & 3 inches. They were also generally quite slim in build. Their skin was a dark tanned colour. Their hair was a black colour & was coarse. They often wore jewellery & ornaments on their neck, ears, lips, & noses. These ornaments varied in material; however, they were often made with clay, shell, or cotton. Some of these ornaments were braided into hair & used as hair pieces as well. They did have social & societal constructs, with each group of Arawaks having a chief. For enjoyment & religious purposes, they had festivals. These festivals entailed singing, dancing, & eating food with the community. They had instruments such as wooden gongs, reed pipes, & certain types of drums. They also had a kind of primitive oven which was used to bake small flat cakes. Games were also a common pastime for them; one game they invented was a ball game called Batos. Their religion was polytheistic & their gods were called Zemi. These Zemi would control various sectors of the known universe. The Ciboney Indigenous Peoples The Ciboney indigenous peoples lived throughout the Caribbean. They lived throughout Cuba & as well as the greater & lesser Antilles. They were also known as the Siboney. Their language was unknown & it was a language was an isolate. They often stayed out of the way & lived on the coastlines. Their ambitions concerning war & peace are unknown. They did not farm anything to our knowledge, instead opting to hunt & gather their supplies. They did not write anything down, so extremely little is known about them, as the majority of them were gone before the Europeans arrived. Some of their primary sources of food were shellfish, turtles, & certain available island rodents. They also lacked in arts such as pottery & weaving. They may have originated from southern America in the areas of modern-day Venezuela. If they were, they would have migrated to Cuba. Alternatively, they may have originated from the southern areas of modern-day Florida. However, they did not have very good maritime technologies, making origin determination difficult. The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters Of Antigua No. 1: Hurricane Irma Hurricane Irma was a category 5 hurricane that struck the Leeward Islands took place from August 30th to September 13th, 2017. It was the first Category 5 hurricane to directly hit the Leeward Islands on record. Its highest winds were at 180 miles per hour. It was the 4th most costly tropical cyclone in Cuban & Leeward Islands history. It affected all of the Caribbean, Southeastern U.S states, & Cape Verde, causing 52 direct & 82 indirect fatalities. It also severely damaged infrastructure, trade, & industry, costing a cumulative 77.16 billion dollars in cleanup efforts. Adjusted for inflation today, that would be 93.81 Billion Dollars. No. 2: Hurricane Luis Hurricane Luis was a Category 4 hurricane that affected the majority of the Caribbean. It took place from August 28th, 1985, to September 20th, 1985. It was the most powerful hurricane to make landfall during the 1985 Atlantic hurricane season. Its highest winds were 150 miles per hour. It affected the majority of the Caribbean, the eastern United States, & Newfoundland. It caused extreme damage to Antigua's infrastructure, approximately 3.3 billion dollars worth in 1985, which would be 9.14 billion dollars in today's money adjusted for inflation. In addition to this, it took the lives of 19 islanders, leaving lasting impacts that would scar a generation. No. 3: FlyMontserrat Flight 107 Flight 107 was a commercial flight that took off from Antigua V.C. Bird International Airport & was meant to reach Montserrat John A. Osborne. The aircraft type was a Britten-Norman Islander. During takeoff off there was engine failure & the plane crashed. It caused 3 fatalities & 1 Injury. There was a total of 1 survivor from the crash. The Economy & Public Stock Market Of Antigua & Barbuda Antigua & Barbuda as a whole is economically stable, however, they did lose a massive amount of income due to the pandemic of 2020. Their nominal GDP is 1.611 billion USD, at the time of publishing. Their currency is the Eastern Caribbean Dollar or the XCD. They are a tourism & service-based economy. They rank 176th in the country by GDP. Their GDP per capita is 14,900.80 USD. Their inflation has only been 1.205% since 2018. Their unemployment rate is 11% of the total population. Their public debt is 458 million dollars as of 2023. Their primary industries are: agriculture, fishing, mining, animal husbandry, & tourism. A beautiful photograph of the St. Johns Club, an all-inclusive resort in the capital of Antigua. This showcases the bustling tourism industry of the country. Credit to St. John's Club. Directories / Credits https://www.britannica.com/place/Antigua-and-Barbuda/History http://www.antigua-barbuda.org/aghis01.htm https://www.studycountry.com/guide/AG-history.htm https://history.state.gov/countries/antigua-barbuda https://www.antiguanice.com/v2/client.php? https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/antigua_barbuda.htm https://www.everyculture.com/A-Bo/Antigua-And-Barbuda.html https://www.britannica.com/topic/Carib https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/24/archeology-caribbean-carib-people-cannibalism-colonial-history-wrong https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ciboney https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arawak https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/27946/chapter-abstract/211886548?redirectedFrom=fulltext http://npshistory.com/series/archeology/seac/air/salt-river-bay.pdf https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/histarch/research/haiti/en-bas-saline/taino-culture/ https://www.weather.gov/mfl/hurricaneirma https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL131995_Luis.pdf Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A stunning photograph of Jaela Balugo, Founder of Tides of Tomorrow & Science Communicator, on a sunlit beach. Credit to Jaela Balugo. Recently, our head writer was immensely fortunate to sit down with Organizational Founder & Science Communicator, Jaela Balugo, for an interview discussing her organization, Tides of Tomorrow, & her efforts in science communication.  Jaela Balugo is the founder of Tides of Tomorrow, a new organization from Northern California, dedicated to educating elementary & junior high students on the value & importance of the ocean, as well as providing them with a platform to have their oceanic ideas heard. Through this organization, she hosts school presentations, works with local artisans to raise funds for her organization & oceanic conservation, & is currently working to build a platform through a network of booths in farmers' markets throughout Northern California.  In today’s interview, we sit down with Jaela to discuss her wonderful organization, efforts in science communication, & advice for young people who simply wish to be heard in a comprehensive 13-question interview. Before delving into today’s interview, please note everything said has been edited for clarity, & that the opinions of our interviewee do not necessarily reflect the opinions & values of our organization. With that being said, let us delve into the contents of the interview!  The Contents Of The Interview Questions About Her Passion:  1. What sparked your passion for marine biology? I’ve always lived near the ocean, & although I don’t live directly on the water, I’m fortunate enough to visit the ocean frequently. Looking at the tide pools gave me a curiosity of it all. It inspired me to look for what else was out there. Sometimes, I would go out surfing & see new species of sharks or see a seal pop out of the water. That ended up spiraling into me looking for books, YouTube videos, & podcasts about creatures, how the oceans work, & how the ocean impacts humans. That is how it all started!  2. Is there a specific person, place, or piece of media that assisted in the sparking of your oceanic passion? Watching oceanic documentaries on Netflix & Disney Plus caused me to look more into the subject, however, there was one person that I found on TikTok that truly helped me. I believe his handle was marinebiologyjohn, he was a PhD student from the University of Miami working with sharks, & working on tagging sharks. One day, I joined one of his TikTok Lives & I asked him the same question that you asked me: “What sparked your passion?”. He told me about how he had always loved biology & sharks, & I really connected with as well as admired him. He gave me advice about my future, my career, & about helping the planet. He influenced me a lot, I thank him a lot for my passion.  3. Do you have a favorite marine or terrestrial animal? If I had to narrow it down, it would be extremely difficult. So, my last name is Balugo, & people accidentally call me Beluga sometimes, however, I don’t really care at this point. I find it kind of funny, & kind of silly. Marine mammal-wise, Beluga Whales are my favorite.  If it were sharks, I would have to say Oceanic Whitetips. They are such beautiful sharks, I love them so much! Those are my top two favorite animals. 4. What inspired you to begin your organization?  It started with me noticing that a lot of people don’t care about ocean conservation. Obviously, you don’t want to shove it down anyone’s throat & say that they have to care, however, you have to focus on this because it’s our future.  Also, I would hear other people who would say things that are completely untrue about our oceans, & about climate or say that they don’t really matter. I always found that interesting.  Kids, well, absorb everything. They often have these crazy ideas, however they have the best brains. I’ve worked around them a lot, & I feel like teaching ocean conservation & facts about the ocean to them at a young age is very beneficial. I’ve done a lot of research into childhood development, how children absorb things, & how they develop a vocabulary. I wanted to start an organization or group to have an impact while they are young.  Tides of Tomorrow's official current logo. Credit to Tides of Tomorrow . Questions About Her Organization & Career:  5. Can you describe the founding process for your organization, & how everything began exactly?  I originally conceived this as a club at my school, however, it did not work as all of my teachers refused to sponsor it. That is when I thought, “I’ll do it myself!”. So, I got a group of people together & we began working on ideas to target elementary & middle schoolers, & we started. It is still in the starting stages, however, I’m pretty proud of it.  6. Do you mind walking me through a few of the programs that your organization is currently building or actively has? Our organization is made up of 3 teams: Team Orca, Team Coral, & Team Dolphin. Team Orca is the team focused on presenting to kids in schools & hosting educational oceanic activities that are currently in the works right now. I recently spoke to the Superintendent of my school district, who is fully supportive & has asked us to send him a video on what exactly we intend to present to the kids & what our mission is. We are currently in the process of making that video. That is slightly difficult for everyone involved as of now, as all of us are focused on studying for our midterms & final exams, so we are rather backed up. We’re hoping to work on it soon, & are hoping to begin ramping up in Summer 2025.  7. Do you mind walking me through what exactly the roles of Team Orca, Team Coral, & Team Dolphin are?  As mentioned before, our organization is made up of 3 major teams: Team Orca, Team Coral, & Team Dolphin. Each team was named for a specific reason.  Team Orca was named due to Orca’s teaching their young how to hunt & teaching their young various behavior. They mainly focus on creating & presenting presentations for children in elementary & middle schools, which most of our current team decided to go for. A lot of people truly enjoy teaching, which I loved but was very unexpected! Team Orca is a part of our Wavemakers Department, as they are the ones out in the community making waves, & making a difference. Next, in our Sustainable Seas department, are Team Coral & Team Dolphin, named for coral’s ability to create & dolphin’s ability to communicate.  Team Coral are our artisans, they create things in order to spread the message or to be sold to fundraise for our organization & to fundraise for various ocean conservation organizations. Team Dolphin primarily focuses on our marketing, & advertising. They help Team Coral promote our products, & assist in our physical advertising campaigns in farmers' markets & such.  We don’t want to solely focus our efforts on educating people in schools, we want to target members of the public as well. Education outside of the classroom does not have to be grueling, it does not have to be homework.   8. What are your primary goals for the organization in the near future, such as in 2025 & 2026? For 2025, I’m hoping to have all of our legal matters settled, & to be fully registered & fulfill our legal obligations. In addition to that, I hope to have our YouTube channel fully prepared by the summer's end to act as a digital resource for those who don’t have access to our presentations in person, as well as having a booth in the market.  By 2026, I wish to have at least 5 classroom visits, however, I am aware that teachers are quite busy & have to take time away from valuable instruction for our visits. After that, I intend to graduate from High School, & enter University. I still intend to be running Tides of Tomorrow from the University, even if from afar.  9. What has been your proudest moment or greatest triumph leading the organization so far? My two biggest triumphs may seem small, however, they are very important to me. My meeting with my superintendent from my school district set things in gear, & made me feel so empowered. He truly heard what I had to say; he didn’t dismiss me or steamroll over my thoughts, & it’s very rare to have someone listen to you about ocean conservation. That was a very proud moment for me! In addition to this, my other largest triumph occurred at a youth activism forum at UC Davis. I attended this event to assist one of my friends with her stall for her nonprofit organization. As I was walking around, I found a high-school chapter of the organization 350, & we had an amazing conversation, at the end of which they said that they wanted to collaborate with me! Meeting new people is mildly difficult for me, & making connections has been one of my favorite things to do as a part of Tides of Tomorrow.  10. I’m sure that you have had just as many hurdles as you have triumphs, if not more, & so far in your leading of the organization, what has been your greatest hurdle or obstacle? One of the greatest hurdles is simply getting started. When I began the organization, I created a checklist. After I finished all of the things, I would officially start my organization, however, I had to constantly go back & revise that list. I ended up becoming very frustrated, & thinking, “Ugh, when is this going to end?”. I don’t think it has ended yet, it’s still 2 steps forward & 1 step back.  11. Is your ultimate plan to pursue marine biology as a career path?  My ultimate plan is to pursue research, & conduct my own research to benefit the oceans. I wish to teach as well, & ideally would like to become a professor at one of the UCs. I don’t have enough knowledge to know what exactly I wish to research, however, I’m excited to learn more throughout my college journey & in my career.  12. Do you have any advice for new organization founders, people looking to pursue marine biology, or young people looking to make an impact? Go to the ocean. I know that may be difficult if you are landlocked, however, it’s always helped me to watch oceanic videos such as surfing competitions.  Keep your passion going because sometimes it will feel as if it is gone, & you’ll feel down. However, going back to the ocean or watching it in videos always makes me feel better. Don’t stop. There are going to be times when you feel as if you don’t lose your passion, but be resilient.  Also, there will be people who are willing to help you. You can reach out to me & I’m willing to help! Know your potential, & if something is stopping you, don’t let it because you can go farther.  13. Do you have any final words about marine biology, entering the field, starting your organization, or inspiration for those looking to make an impact? If you have a passion for anything, whether that be the ocean or something else, keep it going. My passion for the ocean keeps me going, & any sort of passion is great to have.  Directories / Credits   https://tidesoftomorrow.weebly.com https://www.instagram.com/tidesoftomorrow_?igsh=NTc4MTIwNjQ2YQ== Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow  Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of a Reef Stonefish (Syanceia verrucosa), seamlessly blending into a coral reef in Australia. Credit to Reinhard Dirschrel. This month's article series will discuss... The island of Mauritius! Mauritius is an island nation that exists in the Indian Ocean. It is off the eastern coast of Africa, & it is semi-close to the eastern areas of Madagascar. It is known for its beautiful beaches & active marine life. The main reason for this marine life is their well-kept coral reefs & seagrass meadows. It is a sovereign nation & the people primarily speak French. The French name for Mauritius is Maurice. It is tropical & is one of the most visited countries of all the African nations. It is approximately 1,017.47 Nautical / Marine miles off the coast of Africa. It is also approximately 2724.90 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of Antarctica. Additionally, the isle is approximately 2088.98 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of the continent known as Asia, specifically the country of India. The island is home to approximately 1,262,523 people. It has many thriving marine ecosystems which include coral reefs. The Mauritian government & the Mauritian people will take care of these coral reefs. This can be seen in many beach clean-ups being conducted. This attracts many marine animals. These species range from tropical fish to dolphins, to even certain species of shark. However, one species in particular is unique from all else; this species is known as the Synanceia Verrucosa (Reef Stonefish). It is known as the most poisonous fish on earth. They pack a powerful venom that can easily be lethal to a full-grown adult. They are known for camouflaging stones to attack their prey. They are very bumpy & often misshapen to put on this camouflage of being a stone. However, it is still quite colorful. It not only does this for camouflage from prey, but also for camouflage from predators. Certain types of other fish will attempt to consume the stonefish, which is possible. The only way to consume a stonefish without being stung is to catch it completely by surprise; this way, its venomous spines do not become erect. It is found near the shoreline in shallow coral reefs, which is somewhat horrifying. In this article, we will discuss the life of the reef stonefish, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the reef stonefish, the distribution of the reef stonefish, & finally the scientific detailings of the reef stonefish. With that being said, let us delve into the reef stonefish.  The Discovery & Life Of The Reef Stonefish The reef stonefish was first described in the year 1766 by Carl Linnaeus. It was described in volume one of his novel Systema Naturae. It is unknown how or when he found this species. Commonly, stonefish will grow up to approximately 16 inches (40.64 centimeters). This does change based on gender, as usually the females are much larger than the males. They will weigh approximately 5 pounds (2.26796 kilograms), once again, this does differ based on gender. Their life span is approximately 7.5 years on average. The intellect of a stonefish is a subject with little understanding. From what is known, they have the same intellect as other types of reef fish. They do not seem to show affection or any type of feeling. They also do not seem to have a very good memory. They are nowhere near as emotionally intelligent or intelligent as a dolphin or a reef shark. It is unknown how long this particular species has existed. They are not social creatures at all whatsoever. They are surprisingly not usually aggressive unless aggravated. However, when aggravated, their spines become erect. When their spines become erect, they can inject their lethal venom into people. Often, they will avoid interaction with humans. They are not known to be aggressive to other fish. They are not very social creatures either. Additionally, they are not known to be very territorial either. They sleep by completely stopping motion & partially burying themselves in coral rubble or sand. Their diet largely consists of reef fish of various kinds, small crustaceans, & certain other small marine species. They are not known to consume cephalopods. It is unknown how much they eat per day, but it is most likely between 5% & 10% of their bodily weight. They are also not known to be cannibalistic. They are nocturnal predators & will often hunt at night. This is most likely because at nighttime, the vision of most fish is limited, so the stonefish can easily catch the fish. The most common predators of these creatures are reef sharks. They are incredibly skilled hunters & can sense & catch prey in as little as 0.0015 seconds (1.5 milliseconds). They do not have a relatively high metabolism due to their sedentary nature. They do not swim very often. When the stonefish does swim, it will use its pectoral fins not only to swim & hop but more so to burrow deep into coral rubble or sand when hunting prey. The speeds at which they swim are unknown. This species of stonefish is usually brown, red, yellow, orange, or black. They can also be a mix of all of these colors, as they are generally not one solid color. The dorsal fin usually contains between 12 to 14 spines & 5 to 7 soft rays while the anal fin has 3 spines & 5 to 6 soft rays. Their dorsal spines are of equal length to the anal spines. The dorsal spines, however, have a thicker sheath of skin containing venom glands at the base. The skin has no scales, but it does have bumps & warts. It is also very misshapen. The head is wide & flattened. They have small upwardly directed eyes that have a deep pit behind them with a smaller pit underneath them.  The Mating Tact,ics, Habits, Cycles, & Practices Of The Reef Stonefish The reef stonefish mates via sexual reproduction. However, the females & the males do not entangle. They do not appear to have a specific breeding season. It is unknown at what age either genders reach sexual maturity. They are not monogamous in any form whatsoever. They are also unable to lactate as they have no parental involvement in their children’s lives. They are also not hermaphroditic & are not able to change sexes in any way whatsoever. The female & male who reproduce together never actually meet each other. The actual mating process follows something similar to this. Once the female is ready, she will lay her unfertilized eggs on the floor of a reef. She will lay as many as 1 million eggs at once on the ocean floor. There, unfortunately, is no actual demographic as to how many of these eggs hatch or how many of them live to see adulthood. Afterward, a male will swim over to the egg pile & release his sperm on the eggs to fertilize them. After this point, there is no parental involvement at all. It is unknown how long it takes for the eggs to hatch. However after the eggs hatch, the creatures are quite well developed. They will then swim off into the ocean & most likely never interact again with each other. This process may be repeated several times in the female's life, it is also unknown if she takes intervals in releasing eggs & if so how long these intervals are.  The Distribution Of The Reef Stonefish Reef stonefish are the most widely distributed of all 5 stonefish species. They are found everywhere from East Africa to the Marquesas Islands. They are also found in the Persian Gulf. They are found in the highest density around Australia, Indonesia, & the southeastern areas of Africa. This is due to their liking of warm temperatures. They also usually stay in shallow waters; it is rare to find them in places other than coral reefs. This is also most likely because the world's largest coral reefs are found in these areas which provide a habitat for reef stonefish. They are not migratory creatures & will often live a rather sedentary life. They will often stay in the same areas which they were born. This species in particular is also popular in the private aquarium trade, so theoretically if a boat transporting this species were to capsize, this species would escape into the wild. A situation like this is not very far-fetched so precautions to properly transport this species should be set in place.  The Scientific Details Of The Reef Stonefish The stonefish is unique in many aspects; however, the most prominent aspect is its lethal venom. An article from Science Direct states that “Known components of stonefish venoms include hyaluronidase [15], a 46 kDa protein from S. verrucosa venom with inotropic and chronotropic effects [16] named cardiolipin, and a 45 kDa lectin from S. verrucosa that causes agglutination of rabbit erythrocytes [17]. Large, dimeric pore-forming toxins from both S. This venom is located in the dorsal fin spines. When the spines become erect & something causes the spines to sting, the venom will then be injected into the victim. These spines are sharp enough to pierce through the average tennis shoe. When this venom is injected, it may induce intense pain in the site that was punctured, swelling at the initial sting site, respiratory distress, damage to the ability of the cardiovascular system, convulsions, necrosis, complete paralysis, & in extreme cases death. Signs usually show up within minutes. This venom compound is unique to stonefish. This venom is stored in a way that it can be extracted if done correctly. The venom is also produced by a particular gland in the stonefish. Stonefish have incredibly small, sharp teeth meant for ripping apart the tissue of fish. Their skeletal system is similar to that of most other ray-skinned fish. It is unknown what exactly they evolved from, but they most likely evolved into what they are now approximately 275 million years ago. Fossils of this particular species are undocumented & it is unknown how many fossils in particular we have of this species. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics. All species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics thatinhey develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Also, all chordates possess a circulatory system. This is not to be confused with the word Cordate, which means something heart-shaped. This is typically used in the context of plants. Their class is Actinopterygii, which means that they are ray-finned fish. This also means that their actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements. This class comprises over 50% of living vertebrate species. Their order is Scorpaeinformes. This is an order of ray-skinned fish such as lionfish, sculpins, & stonefish. It is one of the largest orders of ray-skinned fish, as it has 1,320 species currently categorized under it. Their family is Scorpaenidae. This is a family that holds most of the world's venomous marine fish. Species under this family are mostly found in the Indo-Pacific. The etymology of their name is that it comes from the word scorpionfish. The reason for that is because most animals under this family sting with venomous mucus. Their genus is Synanceia. This genus has all of the living stonefish species categorized within it. This genus contains the most venomous fish ever recorded. Their binomial name is Synanceia verrucosa.  What To Do If You Are Stung By A Reef  Stonefish  There are approximately 50,000 injuries due to envenomation at the fault of a stonefish. The following steps are some steps that you may take to prevent any further damage to yourself. Please remember that this is not a medical sourcebook & that this information may not work for certain individuals for various reasons.  Step No. 1: Remove Any Spines That May Be Attached  The spines from the stonefish may have come off in the limb that you were stung in. If this is the case, remove the spines with gloves. Do not touch them or remove them with bare hands, use a cloth barrier.  Step No. 2: Immerse The Area In Non-Scalding Hot Water Studies show that water immersion that is approximately 45° Celsius (113° Fahrenheit) or there about for 30 to 90 minutes helps soothe the wound. Make sure that the water is no higher than 45° Celsius (113° Fahrenheit) to ensure that the person is not burned or injured further.  Step No. 3: Seek Immediate Medical Assistance From A Hospital This is not the type of sting that is curable on your own. Time is of the essence so immediately go to the hospital after noticing the sting. The more time that you wait the more likely severe complications are. This concludes our segment on what to do in the event of being stung by a Synanceia verrucosa.  Directories / Credits https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8225006/#!po=0.303030 https://www.britannica.com/animal/Synanceja-verrucosa Stonefish: The World's Deadliest Fish - Tynemouth Aquarium Stonefish Facts: The Most Venomous Fish in the World - ... 11 Scary Stonefish Facts - Fact Animal http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2008/sumic_igor/index_files/Page635.htm Investigation of the estuarine stonefish (Synanceia horrida) venom ... Hot water immersion as a treatment for stonefish sting: A case report - PMC Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Today's article will discuss the intriguing history of Monterey, California. Monterey Bay is located on the Monterey Peninsula in Northern California. It is also situated against the Pacific Ocean, making it a prime spot for migrating whales. The bay is known for its historical sites, kayaking, museums, hiking, & the Monterey Bay Aquarium. Monterey Bay is approximately 25 miles across, & has many, many different kinds of marine features. As a result of its diverse environment, it has a biodiversity of animals, including the rare Abalone. The Bay is one of the few places in California where the sport of Abalone diving is permitted, & done. Since it is close to many metropolitan cities, & has many different museums, it is extremely popular among tourists. The bay, along with the town, is also the capital in oceanic science, for both its environment, & the laboratories that are built along the coast. It has many historical sites as well, due to it functioning as the capital of Alta California under Spanish & Mexican rule, & was founded in the year 1770. The bay is extremely biodiverse, & which makes it a favorite among marine creature watchers. The most popular of these creatures to watch are Sea Otters, California Sea Lions, Whales, & Dolphins. Monterey has existed in 4 different countries, & is considered the oldest city in California. The marine life surrounding has been an important part of Monterey’s history since before contact with the Spanish. For example, An important part of the Esselen Indigenous Peoples culture was gathering abalones, mussels, limpets, & various other shellfish along California’s coast. Monterey’s modern population is approximately 30,217 individuals. Since Monterey is only at an elevation of 26 feet & on the San Andrea’s Fault, the area is vulnerable to tsunamis. These tsunamis can damage coastal vegetation, as well as affect the many different marine mollusks & arthropods. In this article, we will discuss the documented history Of Monterey, the aboriginals of Monterey, the most destructive man-caused & natural disasters, & the economic state Of Monterey. With that being said, let us delve into the magnificent history of Monterey. A historic aerial photograph of Monterey, circa 1938. Credit to Fine Art America. The Documented History Of Monterey Before Colonization By The Spanish The Aboriginals of Monterey have occupied the area for thousands of years. It is unclear which aboriginals occupied the area first, or how long exactly they have occupied it for. 3 main groups of indigenous people inhabited the area, those being the Esselen, the Costanoan / Ohlone, & the Rumsen. All three of these tribes are not recognized by the federal government as of 2025. After Colonization By The Spanish Historical Events From the 1500s The first Spanish Settler credited with seeing Monterey Bay is Juan Rodríquez Cabrillo. He laid eyes on the bay on November 17th, 1542. He named the bay “La Bahia de los Pinos”, which translates to, Bay of Pines. He did not venture ashore, though, & simply looked at the bay. Historical Events From The 1600s The next Spanish settler to arrive in the bay was Sebastían Vizcaíno, arriving in December of 1602, approximately 60 years after Cabrillo. His voyage began when the New Spanish Empire was attempting to establish a Pacific Port to supply Spain with Manila Galleons. Additionally, explorers thought that California must have Gold & Pearls. Vizcaíno's failure to find pearls or gold sparked doubt amongst his fellow settlers. Additionally, Vizcaíno promised a harbor as well as a land filled with welcoming natives & resources such as timber, gold, & pearls. Ultimately, Vizcaíno’s ideas could not take form. Vizcaíno was the man to name the bay, calling it “Monte Rey Bay”. The reasoning for this name is after the Spanish Viceroy of New Spain who ordered his expedition in the first place. Under an oak tree overlooking the bay, he & his crew of 200 men celebrated mass in honor of their safe voyage. Historical Events From the 1700s On June 3rd of 1770, Under the same oak tree where Vizcaíno celebrated his victorious voyage, an expedition to celebrate a Presidio in Monterey headed by Captain Gaspar de Portolà was joined by the Franciscan Father Junípero Serra, & mass was held. It was at this Mass ceremony that the city of Monterey was founded. A Royal Presidio, Mission, & the San Carlos de Borromeo de Monterey cathedral were among the first buildings erected in Monterey. In 1771, Father Serra moved from the mission in Monterey to the mission in Carmel, as it offered a more appealing agricultural & political environment. In 1776, Spain named Monterey the Capital of both Baja & Alta California. Additionally, Juan Bautista de Anza arrived with the first Spanish Colonists in Monterey, though most would immigrate to San Francisco. The soldiers who came with him lived largely in the Royal Presidio, along with their wives & families. Historical Events From The 1800s In 1818, the Argentine revolutionary Hipólito Bouchard attacked Monterey to reduce or eliminate the Spanish presence in Alta California. After fighting with the Spanish on both land & sea, He sacked & destroyed parts of the town. His sea attacks were largely against El Castillo. The soldiers quickly rebuilt the town afterward & began industrializing Monterey soon after. They built streets, houses, & businesses outside of the Presidio to establish a larger community. The rest of the historical events for this century will be discussed in the subsection titled “After Colonization By The Mexicans”, as Mexico gained Independence in 1821. After The Colonization By The Mexicans Historical Events From The 1800s In April of 1822, the residents of Monterey finally learned that Mexico had won its independence from Spain, & that they were a part of the newly formed Mexico. Soon after, the Californians pledged their independence to the Mexican Government. Though the Spanish Government discouraged foreign nations from trading with California, the Mexicans still opened international trade. Monterey became the official Port of Entry for California, & British, American, Scottish, Irish, & French ships could not resist the resources that California was offering. The majority of the exports were Hide & Tallow used for soap making. At one point, a dried steer hide was dubbed the “Bank Note Of California”. These hides would largely be used for saddles, harnesses, belts, & various other leather goods. This new trade advanced Monterey at a Rapid Rate, & gave Monterey an international presence. Many immigrants would marry into Mexican families to become Mexican Citizens. In 1842, the U.S. built a consulate in Monterey in response to the growing U.S. presence in California. Thomas Larkin was the first & only American Consul to California. His house still is standing, & is located on Pacific & Jefferson Street. His house is widely considered the origin of the architectural sub-style of Monterey Colonial. Around this time, the Mexican Government gave land grants to both private citizens & the city of Monterey. The city received approximately 30,000 acres of land. In 1842 Commodore Thomas Catesby mistakenly seized California from Mexico. This was quickly sorted out, & Catesby’s shipped nervously sailed away. After Becoming The Republic Of California Historical Events From The 1800s The Republic of California existed from June 14th of 1846 to July 9th of 1846. The reason for this Republic only existing for 25 days is because it wasn’t meant to become a real country. On July 7th, Commodore John Drake Sloat’s Squadron landed in the bay of Monterey, & raised the U.S. flag. After this, the Republic of California was dissolved. After Colonization By The United States Of America Historical Events From the 1800s In 1848, The Mexican War Stopped with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The first American Alcalde for Monterey was Navy Captain Chaplain Walter Colton. Colton, a graduate of Yale University, was a fine alcalde of Monterey. One of his accomplishments for the town was the construction of Colton Hall, which was the first Californian building to be built under the American Flag. It was opened on March 8th of 1849 to be a town hall & school, but it became much more. Additionally, in 1849, the Californian Military Governor called for a constitutional convention to be held at Colton Hall. The California Constitution was ratified on October 13th. Despite Monterey's importance, it was not the first state capital, a title that instead went to San Jose. On September 9th, 1850, the U.S. Congress admitted California as the thirty-first state of the Union. Many Chinese immigrants began coming to Monterey due to the rich abalone beds & abundance of squid. These immigrants began establishing a community, & by 1853, they established a fishing village near Monterey. Many Chinese immigrants brought their families in search of a new life. These Chinese immigrants would soon be followed by Portuguese whalers, who wanted to make a lucrative career out of whaling. Colton Hall served as the County Seat until 1873 when Salinas took that role. Colton Hall served as a Court House & a Public School from 1873 to 1896. In the modern day, the hall is a museum for Monterey’s History. With railroads becoming the most efficient form of travel, many realized that having a railway in Monterey would make trade much more efficient. So, in 1874, the Monterey & Salinas Valley Road was established. The road was soon overtaken by the Southern Pacific Railroad. One of the big landowners near Monterey had a dream of building a seaside resort. This man was Charles Crocker, & his dreams would come to life very soon. Complete with Gardens, a Polo field, & race tracks, the hotel would open in 1880. This hotel sparked the birth of the Monterey Tourism Industry. As more Japanese & Chinese Immigrants began arriving in the 1890s, many Japanese fishery experts became very interested in the abalone beds of Monterey, & began appraising them. Historical Events From The 1900s In 1900, the first sardine canning plant was opened by H.R. Robbin, & In 1902, the second fish packing & canning plant was opened to create the historic cannery row. It was opened by Otasabaro Noda, & Harry Mapas. These 2 canning factories would be the foundation of Monterey’s historic sardine industry. In 1906, a fishing village near Monterey burnt down, resulting in a large Chinese population relocating to McAbee Beach, & establishing a community. The Robbins factory was taken over by Frank Booth, who began heavily promoting sardines. An associate of Frank Booth, Petro Ferrenate, brought over several Sicilian Fishermen who introduced the Lampara boat & net system. This would massively increase & optimize the salmon, & sardine catches. Booth would go on to hire the Norwegian fishery expert Knut Hovden to mechanize the Canning process. Hovden succeeded in this process & by 1940 there were 19 sardine factories, that were collectively canning 250,000 sardines each year. Unfortunately, issues over wages began arising in the 1920s & 1930s, which caused fishery workers to go on strike. This put a fairly large strain on the sardine industry. A photograph of historic Cannery Row, Monterey, California, circa 1945. Credit to Fine Art America. In 1939, the Path of History connecting 55 historical sites became part of the city's historical preservation plan. In the mid-1940s, the sardine industry slowly began reducing, until eventually, it reduced to nothing at all. The reason for the fishing industry's end is largely due to diminishing sardine catches. The Aboriginals Of Monterey The Esselen Indigenous Aboriginals The Esselen Indigenous Tribe is a small group of Aboriginals located along the Monterey Peninsula, more specifically, the Santa Lucia Mountains. They primarily speak the Esselen Language, which is a part of the Hokan Language Family. The Esselen are one of the smallest tribes in California as of 2025, & their culture is in extreme danger. When Sebastian Vizcaíno arrived, his goal was to convert the Esselen to Catholicism. He built 3 missions around the Santa Lucia Mountains to do so. At these missions, the men & their families were separated & banned from speaking their language or practicing certain cultural behaviors. During the Land Granting period, their land was given away to private owners & they were left to fend for themselves. Very little of their culture survived, & extremely little is known about them. Archeological research is extremely difficult to obtain as their sites in the mountains were extremely remote. This is a link to the official Esselen Website: https://www.esselentribe.org . There are approximately 460 remaining Esselen Individuals. The Ohlone / Costanoan Indigenous Aboriginals The Ohlone Indigenous Aboriginals are a group of native people from the Central California Coast Area. They were formerly known as the Costanoan Aboriginals, but they have since changed the name of their tribe. They have been roaming the coastal areas for thousands of years. The Costanoan Tribe had approximately 15,000 people pre-Spanish contact. Unfortunately, they have been largely written out of California’s History, & were recorded as extinct. Due to the poor records, very little of their culture remains. Thankfully, they have over 2,000 members as of 2025, & have cultural offices in downtown Pomona, California. The Salinan Indigenous Aboriginals The Salinian Aboriginals are an indigenous tribe found from Santa Barbara County to the Central Monterey Peninsula. Their language is in the Hokan Family, & is one of the oldest languages in California, being at least 6,000 years old. The Salinian People lived rather simple lives, mostly hunting, gathering, & farming food. They would often gather acorns, choke cherries, & pine nuts. Basket weaving was also an important part of their culture, & was often done with willow branches & tule reeds. Additionally, they had a deep respect for the natural world & wildlife, specifically birds. Unfortunately, they are not recognized by the federal government. As of 2025, there are approximately 681 individuals in the Salinan Tribe. The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters Of Monterey Unfortunately, we could not find any information on any floods, fires, earthquakes, or ecological disasters directly affecting the bay or the town. The Economic State Of Monterey The largest industries around Monterey are Fishing, Forestry, Hunting, Agriculture, & Tourism. Agriculture is the biggest employer, as Monterey County is the third largest Agricultural County in California. The average income of a Monterey resident is approximately 36,318$ U.S.D. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Dive Into History”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the City of Monterey. Retrieval Date: October 20th, 2023. https://monterey.org/city_facilities/museums/dive_into_history/early_monterey_history.php Citation No. 2: “Monterey: History On A Half Shell”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the National Council On Public History. Retrieval Date: October 20th, 2023. https://ncph.org/wp-content/uploads/Monterey-History-on-the-Half-Shell.pdf Citation No. 3: “Our History” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Esselen Tribe. Retrieval Date: October 20th, 2023. https://www.esselentribe.org/history Citation No. 4: “Costanoan Rumsen Tribe History” Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by The Costanoan Rumsen Tribe. Retrieval Date: October 20th, 2023. https://www.costaoanrumsen.org/history.html# Citation No. 5: “Atascadero Lake & the Salinan Tribe Of Native Americans” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the City of Atascadero. Retrieval Date: October 20th, 2023. https://www.atascadero.org/files/CM/Salinan%20Native%20American%20History%20Sign%20for%20lake.pdf Citation No. 6: “T’epot’aha’i” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Salinan Tribe. Retrieval Date: October 20th, 2023. https://salinantribe.com/# Citation No. 7: “Economic Overviews” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Monterey County Workforce Development Board. Retrieval Date: October 20th, 2023. https://www.montereycountywdb.org/labor-market-information/economic-overviews/ Citation No. 8: “Monterey, California” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Sperling’s Best Places. Retrieval Date: October 20th, 2023. https://www.bestplaces.net/economy/city/california/monterey Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast STEMScribe Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A distinguished photograph of the esteemed Dr. John Frederick Grassle. This article is part of our collection known as the Marine Hall of Distinction. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology and oceanography the most. We do this to commemorate these marine biologists and show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. Today's marine scientist is Dr. John Frederick Matthews Grassle. Dr. John Frederick Matthews Grassle is well known for his work on deep-sea hydrothermal vents, & his involvement in the development of the Census of Marine Life, as well as the Ocean Biodiversity Information System.  In today's article, we are going to be discussing Dr. Grassle's formative years & education, his personal life & career, & finally, his accomplishments, achievements, honors, & awards. With that being said, let us plunge into today's article!  His Formative Years & Education  Dr. John Matthews Frederick Grassle was born on July 14th, 1939, to John Kendall Grassle, & Norah Iris Grassle in Cleveland, Ohio. Born to a family of 2 children, he had 1 sister, by the name of Norah Jean Bunts.  During his childhood, he gained the nickname of Fred, a name by which he was affectionately known for the rest of his life. While in Junior High School, he found himself fascinated with the underwater world, & entrenched in books about Jacques Cousteau, the marine biological pioneer. He attended Bay Village High School for his secondary education, & was a part of the graduating class of 1957. Upon graduating from secondary school, he attended Yale University for his undergraduate degree in Zoology. During his time at Yale, he found himself working as an intern at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute; his future place of work; where he discovered his love for oceanography & marine science. He completed his undergraduate studies in 1961, before moving on to his P.h.D at Duke University. He strongly finished his education at Duke, finishing his P.h.D in zoology in 1967, with his dissertation topic being "Influence of environmental variation on species diversity in benthic communities on the Continental shelf and slope". His Career & Personal Life Post-graduation, he earned a Fulbright-Hays Fellowship at the University of Queensland in Australia, studying sandworms living on the sea floor.  Soon after, he joined the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute as an Associate Scientist, & began working alongside the late & great Howard Sanders studying Deep Sea biodiversity.  A photograph of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute complex in Massachusetts, United States.  In his early years at the institute, he worked on a variety of things, with his earliest research discussing the diversity of deep-sea benthic megafauna, meaning megafauna that live on the sea floor. During this research, he developed the theory that the ocean floor is similar to a Rainforest in composition, in which different micro-environments allow for oceanic organisms to evolve independently of one another. This eventually led to his involvement in a biological expedition to survey the freshly discovered hydrothermal vents at the Galapagos Rift, in 1977, one of the first of its kind. During this expedition, he conducted groundbreaking research regarding these ecosystems dependence on hydrothermal vents with the help of deep-sea submersible ALVIN, & furthered knowledge on how such places are powered by chemical energy from the earth’s interior, & how they function without a drop of sun. As a result of its importance, this expedition was filmed & documented by National Geographic for their documentary “Dive to the Edge of Creation”. This study inspired him, & caused him to want to learn more about the biodiversity in oceans worldwide, & learn more about how to track it. It led to a lifelong fascination with the subject, which eventually led to the founding of the Census of Marine Life, & the creation of the Oceanic Biogeographic Information System.  He stayed with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute for 20 years, until deciding to leave the institute for Rutgers University in New Jersey in 1989. Upon joining, he was elected to lead the University Institute of Coastal & Marine Sciences, an institute that he & his wife built together to have its now illustrious marine biology program.  During his first few years at the institute, his research primarily focused on coastal continental shelf & continental slope biodiversity, & developing various kinds of oceanic mass monitoring systems. This interest in having oceanic mass monitoring & informational systems led to him proposing the idea of a census for biodiversity in oceans worldwide, which he coined “Census of the Fishes”, later to become “Census of Marine Life”, in 1996. He wrote to Jesse Ausubel of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation about the idea, who took an interest. Jointly, they organized the “Census for the Benthos Workshop”, at Rutgers Universities Coastal & Marine Science Institute, garnering much support in the process.  Finally, in 2000, he launched the Census for Marine Life, a 10-year-long, 650 million dollar, comprehensive research experiment, cataloging every animal in our ocean, past, present, & hopefully future. The project was groundbreaking, engaging over 2,700 researchers throughout its lifetime. Founded in association with the Census for Marine Life, was the Ocean Biodiversity Information System, the first large-scale effort to track large-scale marine biodiversity, creature distribution, & population sizes with the use of the internet, which is still in operation to this day.  For all of his efforts heading the Census Steering Committee for 8 years, he was awarded the International Cosmos Prize, a prize-awarding those who have made outstanding strides toward promoting “A Harmonious Coexistence Between Nature & Mankind”. Soon after, in 2009, his entire career, up until then, was chronicled by a group of 5 scientists in an article for the Journal of Deep-Sea Research. This article, titled “A Mosaic of Diverse Ideas: The Ecological Legacy of J. Frederick Grassle”, gave a comprehensive overview of his career, ideas, & legacy.  In 2012, he officially retired from Rutgers University, after 23 years working at the institution.  Sadly, on July 6th, 2018, Dr. John Frederick Grassle was found to have passed away in his sleep at the Regency Jewish Heritage Nursing Home in Franklin Township New Jersey at the age of 78. He is survived by his wife of 53 years, Judith Helen Grassle, along with their son, John Thomas Grassle. He is also survived by his sister, Norah Jean Bunts.  His contributions to marine biology, marine science, and humanity as a whole are immense. He is fondly remembered by colleagues, mentees, and friends alike. His contributions will not be forgotten and continue to inspire Marine Biologists to this day. His Achievements, Accomplishments, Awards, & Honors  Across his career, he had 6 species of Polychaetes, 1 genus of Polychaetes, 3 species of mollusks, & 3 species of crustaceans named after him.  He has authored a plethora of scientific papers, being involved with approximately 80 across his entire career. He was recognized with the Japan Prize in 2013 for his work in advancing marine science, oceanography, & humanity as a whole. The Japan Prize is one of the most prestigious international prizes, & is awarded in the presence of the Prime Minister, Empress, & Emperor of Japan.  For his outstanding contributions to the biological world, he was rewarded with the Grand Prix des Sciences de la Mer Albert de Monaco in 2005 He earned the National Water Quality Monitoring Council's Vision Award in 2008.  He was awarded the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Earth & Environmental Science shortly after, in 2009.  In 2011, for all of his work in oceanography, he was recognized by the American Society of Limnology & Oceanography, A.C. Redfield Lifetime Achievement Award. In the same year, he was awarded the International Cosmos Prize, presented by the Expo 90 Foundation to the Census of Marine Life Scientific Steering Committee, a committee he was integral to the founding & leading of.  From 1994 to 2002, he was the president of the International Association for Biological Oceanography, commonly known as IABO.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “John Frederick Grassle”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. https://www.geni.com/people/John-Grassle/6000000128692037974 Citation No. 2: “John Frederick Grassle Obituary”, Written by Unknown, & Published on July 6th, 2018. https://www.matherhodge.com/obituaries/John-Frederick-Grassle?obId=27304299 Citation No. 3: “Renowned Rutgers Marine Scientist J. Frederick Grassle, Whose Pioneering Work Helped Unlock the Ocean’s Mysteries, Dies”, Written by the Office of Public Outreach & Communication, Rutgers University, & Published on July 16th, 2018. ttps:// marine.rutgers.edu/announcements/renowned-rutgers-marine-scientist-j-frederick-grassle-whose-pioneering-work-helped-unlock-the-oceans-mysteries-dies/ Citation No. 4: “Dr. John Frederick Grassle”, Written by the Japan Prize Foundation, & Published in 2013.  https://www.japanprize.jp/data/prize/2013/e_2_achievements.pdf Citation No. 5: “A mosaic of diverse ideas: the ecological legacy of J. Frederick Grassle”, Written by Paul V. R. Snelgrove, Rose Petrecca, Karen I. Stocks, Cindy Van Dover, & Cheryl Ann Zimmer, & Published in September 2009. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0967064509001659?via%3Dihub Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast  STEMScribe Cash Daniels Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Today's article will discuss the oceans surrounding Monterey Bay, California. Monterey Bay is located on the Monterey Peninsula in Northern California. It is also situated against the Pacific Ocean, making it a prime spot for migrating whales. The bay is known for its historical sites, kayaking, museums, hiking, & the Monterey Bay Aquarium. Monterey Bay is approximately 25 miles across, & has many, many different kinds of marine features. As a result of its diversity of environment, it has a biodiversity of animals, including the rare Abalone. The Bay is one of the few places in California where the sport of Abalone diving is permitted, & done. Since it is close to many metropolitan cities, & has many different museums, it is extremely popular among tourists. The bay, along with the town, is also the capital in oceanic science, for both its environment, & the laboratories that are built along the coast. The town of Monterey has many historical sites as well, due to its functioning as the capital of Alta California under Spanish, & Mexican rule, & its existence being 6 years older than that of the United States. The bay is extremely biodiverse, & which makes it a favorite among marine creature watchers. The most popular of these creatures to watch are Sea Otters, California Sea Lions, Whales, & Dolphins. Monterey Bay is also one of the largest marine protected areas in the USA. This protects animals from harassment, protects the environment from environmentally damaging activities such as fishing, & protects the environment from harmful human interaction. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, tides, temperatures, & marine geography of Monterey Bay, the most prominent ecosystems of Monterey Bay, the documented marine flora & fauna of the bay, & finally, & how ocean acidification has affected Monterey Bay. With that being said, let us delve into the oceans surrounding the beautiful, illustrious Serengeti of the Sea. A marvelous photograph of Monterey Bay's bluffy cliffs in all of their glory. The Salinity, Temperatures, Tides, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Oceans Surrounding Monterey Bay Monterey Bay rests along the Northeastern Pacific Ocean. Since Monterey Bay is so large, the Salinity changes between the areas. The salinity of the bay doesn’t fall below 31 parts per thousand, & doesn’t rise above 34 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is the way that salinity is currently measured. There is a river flowing into the bay, but this doesn’t cause any saline disparities. Aside from this, there are no external factors currently that seem to be affecting the salinity. The temperature charts of Monterey Bay can be found on a plethora of websites, including but not limited to: https://seatemperature.net , https://seatemperature.info , https://seatemperature.info , & finally https://www.watertemp.org . The average annual temperature of Monterey Bay is approximately 56° Fahrenheit (13.3333 Celsius). With this average, a 7-millimeter-thick full wetsuit or an 8-millimeter thick semi-drysuit is recommended for swimming or oceanic sports. The tidal charts can be found on similar websites, including https://www.tide-forecast.com , https://www.tideschart.com , https://www.tideschart.com , & finally https://www.tidetime.org . The tide usually doesn’t get over 7.45 feet (2.27076 meters) or below 0.34 feet (0.103632 meters). Monterey Bay is protected from Open Oceanic currents, however this does not mean it doesn’t have riptide. Before entering the bay, one should always make sure that the riptide isn’t strong. Riptide is a strong type of current that pulls out of inlets. If a swimmer gets caught in a riptide, the swimmer will have major issues getting back to shore, & will possibly need to be rescued. Swimming in Monterey Bay is common, & a very enjoyable experience for those who are used to colder temperatures. The bay is also popular for surfing, kayaking, & paddle boarding. Snorkelling & Scuba Diving are incredibly esteemed as the variety of marine ecosystems & marine fauna creates an interesting experience like no other. Pollution isn’t bad in the bay, as nearly the entire bay is considered a marine protected area. As said in the introductory section, the bay's deepest oceanic point is approximately 12,437 feet (3790.7976 meters) deep. The marine geography of the island is extremely varied, & is not flat in the majority of areas that aren’t coastal. From a variety of perspectives, the best beaches of Monterey Bay are currently considered to be Del Monte Beach, Lovers Point Beach, Spanish Bay Beach, Monterey Municipal Beach, Asilomar State Beach, McAbee Beach, Salinas River State Beach, Monterey State Beach, San Carlos Beach, & finally Carmel River State Beach. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of The Oceans Surrounding Monterey Bay Ecosystem Type No. 1: Underwater Canyon Monterey Bay has one of the deepest underwater canyons in the entirety of California, which provides an interesting marine habitat. These canyons typically have seagrasses, ray-skinned fish, & crustaceans. Marine mammals usually stay away from these areas as they all breathe air & getting to the surface can be challenging from these areas. These canyons usually go between 1000 feet, & 12,437 feet deep. Usually, this will be rocky rather than sandy. The Monterey Underwater Canyon begins off the coast of Moss Landing, & ends in the open ocean. Ecosystem Type No. 2: Kelp Forests The Kelp forests are the pinnacle of California’s Ecosystems, & are widely considered to be the rainforests of the sea. Kelp forests are areas where kelp, a kind of macroalgae, grow In abundance & great density, similar to a forest. Over 25 different species of kelp encompass these forests, with the most common being Macrocystis Pyfiera. These forests are used as shelter, sustenance, hunting grounds, spawning grounds, & breeding grounds. Additionally, a few different aquaculture farms will use kelp from these areas to feed various farmed fish. Kelp forests also capture carbon at a much quicker rate than land forests, which makes them a massive contributor to lowering carbon dioxide levels. Ecosystem Type No. 3: Oceanic Mounds / Hills Oceanic mounds are found all over Monterey Bay. Oceanic Mounds are areas of the ocean in which there are large underwater mounds. These mounds will cause the waves above to become much larger, which can be more or less noticeable depending on the size of the mound. Oceanic mounds typically have more marine mammals near them than deeper oceanic areas. Ecosystem Type No. 4: Estuaries Estuaries are a kind of coastal ecosystem created by freshwater mixing with saltwater, creating a brackish shallow ecosystem. In Monterey Bay's case, the largest estuary was made by the Salinas River. Many estuaries also support seagrass meadows, as is the case with Monterey. These estuaries are quite shallow, & are important for fish spawning. In certain areas, such as Morro Bay, estuaries can cause salinity issues, however thankfully in Monterey Bay they do not. The most common marine fauna found in this area are small fish, which are often eaten by waterfowl. The Documented Marine Flora Of The Oceans Surrounding Monterey Bay Monterey Bay is extremely biodiverse, with at least 3 different species of marine plants living in the bay. The primary marine seaweeds are Macrocystis Pyfiera (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp), & Nereocystis luetkaena (Bull Kelp), though seaweeds are not technically plants, & are instead protists. There is no endemic marine flora that arwill beecognized in 2025. The Documented Marine Fauna Of The Oceans Surrounding Monterey Bay Monterey Bay is extremely biodiverse due to the variety of marine environments. From Sea Otters to Fringeheads Monterey Bay hosts a humongous array of different sea creatures. Animals frequently migrate in & out of the bay, so accurately tracking how many species are in the bay is not simple. As of 2025, there are no endemic marine species. Often the best place to see these animals is in the official permitters of the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. In this area, one can see seals, sea lions, sea otters, whales, dolphins, & many different waterfowl all year round. The bay is nationally recognized as a hot spot for viewing marine life, both in the wild, & in captivity. Monterey has at least 19 different marine mammals, 200 different species of fish, & 360 different species of Molluscs. For more information on the exact species of Monterey Bay, Please visit https://www.inaturalist.org/places/monterey-bay . How Ocean Acidification & Pollution Are Affecting Monterey Bay Ocean acidification & general rising oceanic temperatures are affecting the marine flora & fauna in Monterey Bay moderately. As the bay acidifies, it causes fish to migrate away, or change their behavioral patterns. For example, due to ocean acidification juvenile rockfish have been less energetic & slower, & as a result, are being eaten by predators in higher numbers. Ocean acidification is a very complex subject, & is primarily caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, & deforestation, for the past 150 years.  When carbon dioxide contacts sea water, it forms carbonic acid.  Carbonic acid gives off positive H+ ions, which causes increased oceanic H+ concentrations & decreased oceanic Ph. When the ocean has decreased Ph, it effectively acidifies. When this happens, it causes conditions that will eat at the shells of bivalves. Though many conservationists are working to slow down the effects of this, if nothing is done Monterey will be a bay devoid of paradise. The Rivers That Monterey Bay Supports River No. 1: Salinas River The mouth of the Salinas River opens into central Monterey Bay. The Salinas River is approximately 175 miles (281.635 kilometers) long, & is freshwater. This river is commonly used by farmers to help irrigate their crops. These crops are primarily lettuce, artichoke, broccoli strawberries, & cauliflower. It is not clear how much marine flora & fauna the bodies of water share, however, they do share waterfowl. There are approximately 90 different species of waterfowl documented around the bay & the river. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Overview”, Written by the Superintendent, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By The National Atmospheric & Oceanic Administration. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2023. https://montereybay.noaa.gov/intro/welcome.html Citation No. 2: “Physical Oceanography II. Water Masses & Hydrography”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By The National Atmospheric & Oceanic Administration. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2023. https://montereybay.noaa.gov/sitechar/phys22.html Citation No. 3: “Wetsuit thickness and temperature guide”, Written By Mark Evans, & Published On April 24th, 2023, at 3:05 PM. Published By Scuba Divers Magazine. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2023. https://www.scubadivermag.com/wetsuit-thickness-and-temperature-guide/#Scuba_diving_wetsuits Citation No. 4: “The Ultimate Guide To Monterey Beaches”, Written By Christine Sarkis, & Published on August 6th, 2023. Published By the Family Vacationist. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2023. https://familyvacationist.com/the-ultimate-guide-to-monterey-beaches/ Citation No. 5: “Wildlife Viewing”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2023. https://montereybay.noaa.gov/visitor/access/critter.html Citation No. 6: “Climate Change”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Monterey Bay Aquarium. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2023. https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/act-for-the-ocean/climate-change/the-challenge Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast STEMScribe Cash Daniels Tides of Tomorrow Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa